TKE 4610 - Sistem Komunikasi II

Konsep Ruang Sinyal

(Signal Space)
Dosen : Don EDG Pollo, ST., MT.
 Introduction to Modulation
Spectrum monitoring is amidst major change because of
introducing new digital modulation techniques, and new and
sophisticated measurement equipment.
There is an increased use of digital modulation in: GSM, DAB,
DVB-T, WLAN etc. These new techniques require
measurement a number of new parameters.
There is an increased use of modern digital receivers that
employ modern DSP for demodulation and signal analysis,
including spectral analysis.
New training procedures are required for smooth transition
towards monitoring new digital modulations and employing
new digital receivers.
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 Intro to Analog Modulation
Analog modulation – the message is an analog signal and is
impressed on a carrier.
To study analog modulation is still important, since:
 AM and FM are still in use in radio broadcasting, and AM
vestigial side band in TV broadcasting;
 digital modulation techniques also use AM, FM and PM.

Transition towards digital modulation has already happened

in mobile telephony.
Major shift towards introducing digital modulation in
broadcasting is happening in Europe: DAB, DVB-T.

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 Intro to Digital Modulation

The first step to digital transmission is to perform A/D conversion

which includes the following steps:
 taking samples from a continuous (analog) signal bandlimited
to B; by the celebrated sampling theorem, perfect
reconstruction from samples is possible if the sampling rate
meets the condition fs>=B.
 quantization, which is practically rounding off the signal
samples to a finite number L of values (quantization with L
levels).
 conversion of quantized samples to bits; the number of bits
used for transmission of a quantized sample is log2q, and,
thus, the bit rate is equal to R=fslog2L [bit/s].
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Intro to Digital Modulation
A/D Conversion

(a) sampling
(b) quantizing Dv=2mp/L;
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 Intro to Digital Modulation
In digital transmission we transmit bits. Shannon
showed that by keeping the transmission rate R
[bits/second] below channel capacity C, errorless
transmission is possible:
RC
Since channels are analog, bits are transmitted by
sending waveforms, i.e. analog signals s1(t),
s2(t),…,sM(t). Each waveform carries k=log2M bits of
information.
When bits are transmitted on analog waveforms, we
have a digital modulation.
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Intro to Digital Modulation

Functional model of passband data transmission system

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 Intro to Digital Modulation
mi Pulse g i (t ) Bandpass si (t ) M-ary modulation
Format
modulate modulate i  1, , M
channel
transmitted symbol hc (t )

estimated symbol n(t )

Demod.
Format Detect
m̂i z (T ) & sample r (t )

Major sources of errors:

 Thermal noise (AWGN)
 disturbs the signal in an additive fashion (Additive)
 has flat spectral density for all frequencies of interest (White)
 is modeled by Gaussian random process (Gaussian Noise)
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 Due to the filtering effect of transmitter, channel and receiver,
symbols are “smeared”.
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Intro to Digital Modulation
Example: Impact of the channel

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 Intro to Digital Modulation
Receiver job

Demodulation and sampling:

 Waveform recovery and preparing the received
signal for detection:
 Improving the signal power to the noise power (SNR)
using matched filter
 Reducing ISI using equalizer

 Sampling the recovered waveform

Detection:
 Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample
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 Intro to Digital Modulation
Receiver structure

Step 1 – waveform to sample transformation Step 2 – decision making

Demodulate & Sample Detect

z (T )
Threshold m̂i
r (t ) Frequency Receiving Equalizing
comparison
down-conversion filter filter

For bandpass signals Compensation for

channel induced
ISI

Received waveform Baseband pulse

Baseband pulse Sample
(possibly distored)
(test statistic)

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 Signal Space
What is a signal space?
 Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional
orthogonal space
Why do we need a signal space?
 It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.
 It is a means to calculate signals energy and Euclidean
distances between signals.
Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between
signals?
 For detection purposes: The received signal is
transformed to a received vectors. The signal which has
the minimum distance to the received signal is
estimated as the transmitted signal.
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 Signal Space
Schematic example of a Signal Space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11, a12 )

 1 (t )
z  ( z1 , z2 )
s 3  (a31 , a32 )

s 2  (a21, a22 )

s1 (t )  a11 1 (t )  a12 2 (t )  s1  (a11, a12 )

Transmitted signal
s2 (t )  a21 1 (t )  a22 2 (t )  s 2  (a21, a22 )
alternatives
s3 (t )  a31 1 (t )  a32 2 (t )  s 3  (a31, a32 )
Received signal at z (t )  z1 1 (t )  z2 2 (t )  z  ( z1 , z2 )
matched filter output
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 Signal Space
Example of a Signal Set in a Signal Space

s1  ( 2 ,0,0)
s 2  (0, 2 ,0)
s 3  (0, 2 ,1)
s 4  ( 2 ,0,1)

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 Signal Space
• To form a signal space, first we need to know the
inner product between two signals (functions):
– Inner (scalar) product:

 x(t ), y (t )  
*
x (t ) y (t )dt

= cross-correlation between x(t) and y(t)
– Properties of inner product:

 ax(t ), y (t )  a  x(t ), y (t ) 
 x(t ), ay(t )  a*  x(t ), y(t ) 
 x(t )  y (t ), z (t )  x(t ), z (t )    y (t ), z (t ) 
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 Signal Space
• The distance in signal space is measure by calculating the norm.
• What is norm?
– Norm of a signal:

x(t )   x(t ), x(t )    x(t ) dt 
2
Ex


= “length” of x(t)
ax(t )  a x(t )
– Norm between two signals:
d x, y  x(t )  y(t )
• We refer to the norm between two signals as the Euclidean distance
between two signals.

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 Signal Space
Example of Distances in Signal Space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11, a12 )

E1 d s1 , z
 1 (t )
E3 z  ( z1 , z2 )
d s3 , z E2 d s2 , z
s 3  (a31, a32 )

s 2  (a21, a22 )

The Euclidean distance between signals z(t) and s(t):

d si , z  si (t )  z (t )  (ai1  z1 ) 2  (ai 2  z2 ) 2
i  1,2,3
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 Signal Space

Satu sistem komunikasi menggunakan satu set

simbol yang terdiri dari M simbol, dimana satu
simbol diasumsikan memiliki durasi simbol sebesar
T detik :
si(t) , 0 < t < T
si(t) = i = 1, ......, M
0 , t lainnya

Dapat ditentukan satu set fungsi basis, fj(t) , j =

1, ... K , dimana setiap simbol si(t) dapat
diuraikan (dekomposisi) menjadi kombinasi linier
dari fungsi basis tersebut.
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 Signal Space
K
si (t )   Sij f j (t ) , 0  t  T
j 1
dimana Sij disebut sebagai “proyeksi”
dari sinyal si(t) ke fungsi basis ke-j
Set fungsi basis merupakan fungsi basis ortonormal,
yaitu :
1. merupakan set ortogonal
T

f (t )f (t ) dt  0 ,  k , l [1,...K ]
0
k l ,k l

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 Signal Space

2. setiap fungsi basis memiliki “norm” sama

dengan satu T
 j dt  1 ,  j [1,...K ]
f 2
| (t ) |
0

Gambar hasil “proyeksi” dari sebuah sinyal ke ruang dimensi

K disebut sebagai titik konstelasi sinyal tersebut dalam
ruang sinyal.
Fungsi Basis (orthonormal) dapat dicari dengan
menggunakan : ‘Gram-Schmidt procedure’.

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 Signal Space
Example of an Orthonormal Basis Functions
• Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space
 2
 1 (t )  cos( 2t / T ) 0t T  2 (t )
 T

 (t )  2
sin( 2t / T ) 0t T


2
T
T  1 (t )
  1 (t ), 2 (t )   1 (t ) 2 (t ) dt  0 0
0

 1 (t )   2 (t )  1
• Example: 1-dimensional orthonornal signal space
 1 (t )
1  1 (t )  1
T  1 (t )
0
0 T t

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 Signal Space

Contoh : sinyal QPSK dapat dituliskan sebagai :

si(t) = Si1 f1(t) + Si2 f2(t) , dimana :

2 2
f1 (t )  cos (2ft) , f2 (t )   sin (2ft)
T T

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 Signal Space

V 2T
Si1  cos(i / 2) ,
2
V 2T
Si 2  sin( i / 2) , i  1, 2, 3, 4
2

V = amplituda sinyal QPSK

T = durasi simbol
V2T/2 = Es = energi sinyal (per-simbol)

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Signal Space
Konstelasi sinyal QPSK
f2
Radius = (Es )1/2
= (V2T/2)1/2

f1

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 Signal Space
Konstelasi sinyal QAM-16

2 2
f1 (t )  cos (2ft) , f2 (t )   sin (2ft)
T f2 T

f1

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