Water & Soil Management

Water and Soil
Management
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Sources of Water
 Water Requirement
 Critical Growth Stages
 Determination of Irrigation Schedule
 Method of Irrigation
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
 Generalized Practices Contributory to
Efficient Water Use
Water
• Essential and critical input in crops at all stages

• The medium with which nutrients are
absorbed by plants
• Water supply in the Philippines
– 80% rainfed
– irrigation
Water Requirement
 Total amount of water required for a
plant to complete its growth and
development cycle  germination to
maturity
Water Requirement
Consumptive Use of Water
Evaporation Seepage
•confined to 10 cm •lateral movement of
depth water
Transpiration Percolation
•99% of total water •vertical sub surfaced
absorbed by plant water movement
(cooling system)
Water Requirement
DETERMINANTS DETERMINANTS
Evaporationof stage of crop
•Independent Seepage
•Soil texture/structure
•confined
growth (E>T atto 10 stage,
early cm E<T ••Soil
lateral movement of
permeability
afterdepth
canopy closure •water
Depth of hard pan/
• Dependent on impervious layer
Solar radiation
Transpiration •Extent of soil puddling
Percolation
• Relative
99% humidity
of total water •vertical sub surfaced
Wind turbulence
absorbed by plant water movement
Temperature
(cooling system)
Crop growth duration
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
Efficient Water Use
Critical Growth
Stages
Annuals
Perennials
Critical Growth Annuals
Stages Perennials
• not too critical stage for water

Seeding • adequate moisture for germination
• Accelerated growth rate at 3-5 weeks

Vegetative after germination
• Adequate moisture within 3 – 5
weeks after germination
Stages Perennials
• Deficiency  fertilization, pollination

Reproductive cell differentiation
• Most critical period of development
• Implication on yield
Seed/Grain (# of filled seeds & seed weight)
Filling
• Irrigation not needed usually

Ripening at 2 weeks before harvesting
Stages Perennials
• Small amount of water needed

Early Stage for growth
Flowering
CRITICAL STAGE
FOR WATER
Fruit Dev’t
Stages Perennials
Water stress sensitive phases

 Flowering
 Fruiting
 Seed development
Stages Perennials
Irrigation after a dry-spell >1

month induces early flowering in
 Citrus
 Lanzones
 Durian
 Lychee
 Rambutan
 Coffee (7-12 days stress)
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
Efficient Water Use
Determination of Big Farm
Irrigation Schedule Small Farm
 Based on soil water measurements

– Gravimetric
– Tensiometer
– Electrical resistance blocks
 Based on evapotranspiration
– Potometer (transpiration)
– Budget sheet
 Based on calculations
– Field capacity
 wateramount held by soil at maximum
capacity after excess water is drained.
– Permanent Wilting Point
 soil
moisture level when permanent wilting in
plant occurs
– Available water
 amount of water held between FC & PWP
divided by 100; and whole multiplied by bulk/
specific gravity of soil and depth of effective
rooting
 Temporary wilting  symptom shown

when plants lose their turgidity (usually at
midday)
 Color of foliage  temporary wilting
 Rate of plant growth  by observations
 Feel the soil  soils taken from root zone

depth
Available Moisture Content of Soils
Soil Texture Available

(mm per m)Moisture
Clay 185
Clay loam 150
Sandy loam 120

(Felarmino, 2006)
Methods of Irrigation
• Surface irrigation
– Water is allowed to pass through the soil
surface towards the root zone of the plant
• Furrow method
–done through the furrows with
uniform
–Applicable in gentle slope and soils
with high water-holding capacity
• Surface irrigation
• Basin method
– water is directly applied on soil
surface over the root zone forming
some sort of a basin
– can be done on hilly lands with 60-
70% efficiency
• Sprinkler system
– Uses water more efficiently since water is
applied in small droplets, requires smaller
volume of water, and adopted in various
slopes and soils
– 70-80% efficiency
• Drip system or trickle method
– Most efficient (80-90%)
• Drip system or trickle method
– Delivers water through a network of pipes
attached to the drippers or nozzles which
efficiently regulate the flow of water
directly into the root zone
– Can be combined with fertilization
(fertigation) and pesticide application
– Requires water filtration system to avoid
clogging of nozzles and high capital
investment
How to manage soil moisture in dry season?
General:
· If water is limited, select crops that will grow well
under drier conditions (mungbean, cassava, eggplant).
· Select short-term vegetable crops that can be grown
near a source of water such as a water well, the drain
from washing areas or a water tank.
· Where feasible and affordable, use drip irrigation
systems (such as the bucket system) to maximize water
usage efficiency.
Above the soil surface:

· Cover the soil around plants with a mulch of leaves, cut
grass or rice straw.
· If plastic mulch is used, only silver-coated ones should be
applied since black mulches heat up too much and can cause
burning of stems and other plant parts.
· Provide young plants with shade to keep them cool.
· Remove weeds because they compete with the plant’s
moisture intake.
Below the soil surface:

· Incorporate compost or organic material in the
soil. One large sack of composted organic
material should be sufficient for an area of
about 10m2. Use one sack at the start of the wet
season and one sack at the start of the dry
season.
How to manage soil moisture in the wet season?
Above the soil surface:

· Plant crops in high beds to improve aeration and to
avoid water logging.
· Plant crops that like to grow in wet areas, such as taro
(Colocasia esculenta) and kangkong (Ipomea aquatica).
· Use coconut fronds or other materials to protect
young plants and those with tender leaves from heavy
rain.
· Grow vine plants up on to a trellis.
Annuals
Method of Irrigation Perennials
1) Border strip irrigation

 Field
– divided into strips bounded by low levees
or dikes
– dimension: 5-15 m in width
 75- 300 m in length
 Slope
– along strips : < 3% (3 ft deep/ 100 ft)
– across strips : < 1% (1 ft deep/100 ft)
Annuals
1) Border strip irrigation
 water is spread over the land but not allowed

to accumulate
 Applicable to:
– pasture land
– upland grain crops
– upland rice
Annuals
2) Basin or Paddy Irrigation
 Water is applied to plots, surrounded by

dikes/levees
 Plots are leveled, variable shapes and fallow
the topography of the land
 Popular in lowland rice areas
Annuals
3) Furrow Irrigation in Dryland
 Water rundown the furrows between rows

 Use of "gated pipes" or open ditch in
introducing water to the furrows
 Applicable to row crops, e.g. potatoes,
vegetables, corn, etc.
Annuals
4) Aerial Irrigation
 Sprinkler irrigation system  for wide range
off topography
 Flat to rolling slope of 12%
 Components:
– pumping equipment to provide pressure
– mainline if pressurized water supply
– lateral distribution of pipes
– risers ----- individual sprinklers are mounted
– sprinkler heads
 "fixed" or "moving" type
Annuals
 Fixed systems
– fixed position while irrigating
– but can be moved in different locations
– for corn, sugarcane, banana
Annuals
 Continuous-moving system
– operate while moving in circular pattern
(outer pivot) or along straight path
(linear-moving laterals)
– quarter-pivot sprinkler -- fixed at one end
(pivot point) connected to water supply
 laterals consist off series of sprays about 3 meter
above ground by drive units
 most common pivot lateral is 400-500 m long-
covering 50-80 ha
Annuals
5) Trickle or Drip Irrigation

 Drip irrigation type compound of pipe
distributing network
– mainline water supply
– flow control/ pressure regulatory point
– "mainfolds" or exterior of supply lines
– "laterals" - plastic tubes/hoses connected
to the manifolds
– "emitters" - small openings at t he entire
length of the laterals
Annuals
5) Trickle or Drip Irrigation

 Water is slowly applied directly to the soil
immediately surrounding each plant
 For vegetables and flowering plants in
greenhouses
Annuals
1) Surface Irrigation
 Water is applied in small channels or furrows
which are low access formed between two
ridges or beds where crops are grown
 Furrows run directly down a flat surface of <
3% slope
 Furrows not too long, narrow or too short
and wide to ensure uniform irrigation
Annuals
Surface Irrigation
 Furrow irrigation suited for deep, moderately
permeable soils
 Grading needed for irregular slopes and too
flat is avoided either
 Requires abundant water
Annuals
Overhead or aerial Irrigation

 Water applied in the force of fine mist
(spraying) or simulated rain (sprinkling)
 Requires series of pipes with nozzles
 Could be automatic rotary sprinklers,
oscillators, or a perforated pipe septum
Annuals

 Sprinkler lines are moved at interval along
the main water line into which water is pump
with pressure
 Water lines can be permanent or portable
system
 Areas located by individual sprinklers are
designed to overlap
Annuals

 Advantages Disadvantages
– Adaptive to rolling Cannot perform other
terrains cultural management
– Requires less water, in the area while
labor, maintenance irrigation is on going
cost Foliage diseases may
– Good for sandy soils/ increase due to
coarse textural soil abnormal RH
Not advisable in areas
where water contains
have large amount of
salt
Annuals
Drip or Trickle Irrigation

 System move the water by pumping through
laterals, sub-lateral and eventually very fine
tube where continuous drip or mini-spray
through a microsprinkler is released
Annuals
Drip or Trickle Irrigation

 Advantages Disadvantages
– Smaller amount of More investment and
water applied at a
time--- 1-8 technical competence
liters/hose—thus needed
reducing run-off, In fertigation -
percolation or clogging of pipes
disease occurrence may occur (acid
and a water savings washing/flushing
of 25-50%
done)
– Fertilizer could be
applied trough the Or rapid growth in the
system- fertigation tubings---eventually
– Lesser weed problem block exit of water
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
Efficient Water Use
Drainage
 Removal of excess water from root
zone
– Waterlogging predisposes the plants to
diseases
 root-infectious diseases
– phytothoptora in avocado/citrus
– bacterial wilt in tomatoes
 waterlogging
– papaya
– banana
– pineapple
– Avocado
 deep flooding
Drainage
 Solutions
– construction of drainage canals
– use of raise beds or ridges
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
Efficient Water Use
Crop Forcing
 use of special structures to shield
plants from too much rain
– plastic house
– tunnels
– shedhouse
– greenhouse
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Drainage
 Crop Forcing
Efficient Water Use
Generalized Practices Contributory to
Efficient Water Use
Adoption of Organic Farming Practices

 Use of manure (green animal) or organic
fertilizer increase crop tolerance to drought
 Reasons
– Organic matter improves water retention in the soil
– Plants develop more massive root system in soil rich in
organic matter
Efficient Water Use
Mulching
 Mulching prevents heating of the soil surface 
controls surface water evaporation
 Reduces the impact of raindrops that seal the
soil pore spaces
 More rain water is retained in the soil.
Efficient Water Use
Mulching
 Once mulching materials are acted upon by
microorganisms and they are decomposed, they
add on the soil organic matter (SOM)  SOM
improves soil water holding capacity.
 Mulching also have negative effects  Fungal

infection if the basal stem of crops are fully
covered --- remove the mulch near the stem
during the rainy season.
Efficient Water Use
Frequent Interrow Cultivation

for Row Crops
 Cultivation breaks crusting of soil
particles after heavy rains
– breaks the capillary rise of water
– “soil mulch” effect --- only surface gets dried
 Interrow cultivation disrupts weed
growth --- absorbs moisture in the soil
Efficient Water Use
Construction of Farm Pond or

Water Reservoir
 Series of water reservoir can be constructed to
conserve more water that can be used later in
the dry season
The Best Soil for crops
• Well drained, fairly deep and high in organic matter
(3-5%)
• Good physical condition or structure with ample
nutrient and water-holding capacity
• Uniform and free of compacted layers
• Should be loosed 6-8 inches for vegetables
• Sandy loams and silt loams
• Sandy soils for early harvest & muck soils for leafy
vegetables, root & bulb crops and for seed
germination
Essential Elements
• Criteria for the essentiality of the elements as

proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939):
– Needed for the completion of the plant’s
life cycle
– Causes a specific deficiency when it is
unavailable (not replaceable by another
element)
– Directly involved in plant metabolism
17 Essential Elements
• Macronutrients
– Needed in higher amounts
– Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, sulfur
• Micronutrients
– Needed in small amounts
– Chlorine, iron, boron, manganese, zinc,
copper, molybdenum, nickel
Macronutrients
• Primary nutrients
– NPK
– Major fertilizers since they are required in
relatively large quantities and are most
often lacking in soils
• Secondary nutrients
– Ca, Mg, Sulfur
– They are not deficient in soils and their
plant contents tend to be lower than
primary elements
General Functions of Essential
Elements
1. Constituent of organic structures
(C,H,O,N,S,Mg)
2. Activator of enzyme reactions or charge
carrier (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo, Mn, Ni)
3. Involvement in osmoregulation or
maintenance of electrochemical equilibrium
(K, Cl, Ca)
4. Involvement in energy transfer reactions (P,
B)
Functions of Essential Elements
• Nitrogen
– Constituent of amino acid, nucleic acids,
amines, amides, coenzymes, chlorophyll
– For vegetative growth, producing large,
green leaves and for filling out fruits
– In high amounts cause excessive vegetative
growth and succulence and delay fruiting
• Phosphorus
– Component of nucleic acids, membrane
phospholipids, sugar phosphates, ATP and ADP
– Plays an integral role in cell’s energy
metabolism
– has a regulating role in carbon partitioning
– Promotes early growth, root production,
maturity and seed development
– For fruit production
• Potassium
– Maintains pH stability and osmotic potentials
– Involved in stomatal opening
– Cofactor of many enzymes
– For translocation of carbohydrates, cell division and

water relations
– For root & tuber crops, formation of rigid stems in
celery, disease resistance
– Enhance fruit size and quality and ripening of tomato
• Calcium
– Constituent of middle lamella of cell wall
– Binder of phospholipids in membrane
– Second messenger in environmental and
hormonal signals
– For maintaining the structure of membranes
and cell walls
– Counteracts toxic effects of organic acids in
plants and too much Mg, Na, and B.
Calcium disorders
• Calcium deficiencies even Ca level in soil is
high
• caused by water stress and environmental
factors
• Blossom-end rot in tomato, pepper,
watermelon
• Tipburn in cabbage and lettuce
• Cavity spot in carrot and parsnips
• Blackheart in celery
• Internal browning in brussels sprouts
• Magnesium
– Central atom in chlorophyll molecule
– Activator of enzymes
– Prevents formation of damaging oxadative
radicals
– Vital to photosynthesis
– Deficient in acidic soils, high calcitic
limestone and K
• Sulfur
– Component of amino acids such as cysteine
and methionine
– some coenzymes such as thiamine, biotin
and coenzyme A
– Crucifers has the highest sulfur requirement
– Low in sandy soils and low organic matter
• Chlorine
– Required in oxygen evolving reactions of
photosynthesis
– Maintains electrical neutrality across
membranes
– Active solute in the vacuole
– Stimulates proton pumping ATPase in
tonoplast
• Iron
– Constituents of cytochrome and iron-sulfur
proteins involved in photosynthesis,
respiration and nitrogen fixation
– Required in the synthesis of proteins
• Boron
– Needed in pollen tube growth via cell wall
synthesis and plasma membrane integrity
– Prevents premature bud/flower drop
• Manganese
– For photosynthetic evolution of oxygen
– Cofactor of enzymes (oxidases, peroxidases,
etc.)
• Zinc
– Metal component of many enzymes
– Catalytic, structural or co-active component
– Involved in gene regulation (ribosomes)
• Copper
– Component of plastocyanin
– Cofactor of enzymes in redox reactions
– Lignification of cell walls
• Molybdenum
– Nitrogen metabolism as metal component of
enzymes and catalyst (nitrogenase, etc.)
• Nickel
– Component of enzymes (urease & hydrogenase
– Mobilization of nitrogenous compounds
Leibig’s Law of
Minimum
• If a single essential
element is below the
critical level for
availability, crop
growth and yield will
fall even if the other
elements are in
sufficient supply.
Deficiency symptom
• Diagnosis:
– Visual symptoms
– Tissue and soil analysis
– Biochemical indicators
• Causes:
– Low nutrient concentrations in the soil
– Nutrients in unabsorbable form
– Processes which make nutrients unavailable to plant
(Volatilization, leaching, erosion, etc.)
Mobility of Elements
• Mobile
– Deficiency shows up first in older leaves since
young tissues have more drawing power in short
supply
– N, P, K, Mg, Zn
• Immobile
– First affect young plant parts since older tissues
may have enough of the minerals which they can
retain during short supply
– Ca, B, Cu, Mn, S, Fe
Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
• Nitrogen
– Stunted growth and chlorosis of older leaves
– With abundant anthocyanin in veins
– Short and woody stem
• Potassium
– Yellow with marginal or mottled chlorosis which
then develops into necrosis occurring at leaf tip
and margins towards leaf base
• Calcium
– Young shoots deformed in appearance
– Breakdown of meristematic tissues in stems
and roots (death in acute cases)
– Roots poorly developed
– Symptoms appear near growing points of
stems and roots
– Little or no fruiting
• Magnesium
– Interveinal chlorosis appearing first on old leaves
– Leaves wilt and shed or abscise, brittleness and
necrosis
• Phosphorus
– Young plants stunted
– leaves dark blue-green or purplish
– Stems slender, not woody
– With anthocyanin in veins, necrotic
• Sulfur
– Leaves light green to yellow, appearing first along
veins of young leaves, stem often slender
• Chlorine
– Wilting of leaves, especially at leaf margins
– Severe deficiency curling of youngest leaves,
shrivelling, necrosis
– Roots show sub-apical swelling, stubby due to
formation of short laterals
• Iron
– Interveinal chlorosis appearing first on young leaves

and all aerial parts, necrotic, may be bleached with
margins and tips scorched
• Manganese
– Mottled chlorosis with veins green, appearing first

on young leaves, may spread to old leaves
– Stems yellowish green, often hard and woody

• Boron
– Terminal leaves necrotic, shed prematurely
– Internodes of terminal shoots shortened
– Apical meristems blacken and die
– Roots short and stubby
– Plants dwarfed, stunted
– Flower development and seed production is
lacking or impaired
• Zinc
– Stunted growth in dicotyledons due to reduction
in internodal growth (rosetting)
– drastic decrease in leaf size, whitish chlorotic
streaks between veins in older leaves, chlorosis of
lower leaves followed by necrotic spots
• Molybdenum
– Ligh yellow chlorosis of older leaves
– Flowers may fail to grow
• Copper
– Wilting of terminal shoots frequently
followed by death, leaf color often faded
– Carotene and other pigments reduced
• Nickel
– Root growth severely inhibited
– Leaf tip necrosis with urea application
Nutrient Deficiency Symptom
Fertilizers
• Any substance that supply nutrients to
growing plants
– Organic
• natural
– Inorganic
• Synthetic
–Single (46-0-0)
–Incomplete (16-20-0)
–Complete (14-14-14)
Organic Matter
• Active or living component of the soil
• Green manure and animal manure
• Acts as storehouse for N, S, and P
• Increases cation exchange capacity
• Serves as a buffer for chemical reactions
• Granulator of soil particles for better structure
• Increases porosity – water absorption,
aeration
• Dark color increases heat absorption
Organic Fertilizers
(%) N P K
Bat Guano 10 1.8 1.7
Bone meal 3 6.6 0
Castor bean meal 5.5 0.9 0.8
Cattle manure 1.5 2 1.2

Problems caused by Fresh OM too
close to planting time:
1. Burning from rapid decomposition
2. Formation of excessively aerated layers and pockets
which interferes water movement
3. Locking up of available nitrogen by decomposition
bacteria
4. Mechanical interference to plowing and cultivation
5. Formation of organic toxic compounds under
anaerobic and non-colloidal conditions
Inorganic Fertilizers
(%) Nitrogen Materials N P K
Anhydrous ammonia 82 0 0
Urea 45-46 0 0
Ammonium nitrate 33-34 0 0
Ammonium phosphate-nitrate 27 12 0
Inorganic Fertilizers
(%) Phosphate/Potash N P K
Super phosphoric acid 0 76-83 0
Phosphoric acid 0 52-54 0
Triple superphosphate 0 45-46 0
Single superphosphate 0 18-20 0

Methods of Fertilizer Application
• Broadcasting
– Scattering the fertilizer on the soil surface
• Banding
– Fertilizer is placed 2 inches to the side and 2

inches below the level of the seed in the row at
planting
• Side dressing
– Applying fertilizer 6-10 inches from the base of

plant and lightly incorporated into the soil
Methods of Fertilizer Application
• Starter solutions
– Use of water soluble and liquid fertilizers
directly applied at the roots at planting
– Tomatoes, peppers, melons, cole crops
– 9-45-15, 10-52-8, 16-32-16, others
• Foliar fertilization
– Fertilizers sprayed directly on leaves
• Fertigation
– Applying fertilizers with irrigation water
Determining Fertilizer Requirements
• Soil Analysis
– Collect samples 30-40 cm deep at random
• Tissue Analysis
– Leaf samples using 4-6 months old leaves
from non-fruiting terminals in the mid-
region of the tree (citrus)
Soil Reaction (pH)
• Most crops grow best in pH range of 5.5-7.0
• 5-6 pH is best for highly organic soils
• Ammonium fertilizers, calcium leaching and organic
matter decomposition increases acidity of the soil
• K, Ca and Mg are deficient in acidic soils and reduced
uptake of P.
• Liming neutralizes excess soil acidity and supplies Ca
and Mg
Soil Reaction (pH)
• Al, Mn, Na and minor elements are more

soluble and toxic at high pH
• Fe, Mn, Zn and B are deficient in Alkaline soils
(above 7.4 pH)
Liming
Lime should be mixed in the top 3-4” of soil:
• Calcitic lime (50-56% CaO,1-4% MgO)
– High-Ca for low soil pH and Ca and high Mg
– highly soluble
• Magnesian (39-42%% CaO, 5-15% MgO)
– High-Mg for low pH, Ca, Mg
– moderately soluble
• Dolomitic lime (30% CaO, 20% MgO)
– For very low Mg with low solubility
• Hydrated lime (60% CaO, 12% MgO)
– High solubility but expensive and risky
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Effect of Eutrophication

Water &amp; Soil Management

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Water and Soil

• Essential and critical input in crops at all stages

• not too critical stage for water

• Accelerated growth rate at 3-5 weeks

• Deficiency  fertilization, pollination

• Irrigation not needed usually

• Small amount of water needed

Water stress sensitive phases

Irrigation after a dry-spell >1

 Based on soil water measurements

 Temporary wilting  symptom shown

 Color of foliage  temporary wilting

 Rate of plant growth  by observations

 Feel the soil  soils taken from root zone

Soil Texture Available

Clay loam 150

Sandy loam 120

Above the soil surface:

Below the soil surface:

Above the soil surface:

1) Border strip irrigation

1) Border strip irrigation

 water is spread over the land but not allowed

2) Basin or Paddy Irrigation

 Water is applied to plots, surrounded by

3) Furrow Irrigation in Dryland

 Water rundown the furrows between rows

5) Trickle or Drip Irrigation

5) Trickle or Drip Irrigation

Overhead or aerial Irrigation

Overhead or aerial Irrigation

Overhead or aerial Irrigation

Drip or Trickle Irrigation

Drip or Trickle Irrigation

Adoption of Organic Farming Practices

 Mulching also have negative effects  Fungal

Frequent Interrow Cultivation

Construction of Farm Pond or

• Criteria for the essentiality of the elements as

– Maintains pH stability and osmotic potentials

– Involved in stomatal opening

– Cofactor of many enzymes

– For translocation of carbohydrates, cell division and

– Interveinal chlorosis appearing first on young leaves

– Mottled chlorosis with veins green, appearing first

– Stems yellowish green, often hard and woody

Bat Guano 10 1.8 1.7

Bone meal 3 6.6 0

Castor bean meal 5.5 0.9 0.8

Cattle manure 1.5 2 1.2

(%) Nitrogen Materials N P K

Ammonium nitrate 33-34 0 0

Super phosphoric acid 0 76-83 0

Phosphoric acid 0 52-54 0

Triple superphosphate 0 45-46 0

Single superphosphate 0 18-20 0

– Scattering the fertilizer on the soil surface

– Fertilizer is placed 2 inches to the side and 2

– Applying fertilizer 6-10 inches from the base of

• Al, Mn, Na and minor elements are more

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