FORMATION OF

THE HEAVY
ELEMENTS
 STELLAR NUCLEARSYNTHESIS
• Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in
nuclear fusion reactions once hydrogen-helium stars had
formed from the action of gravity
• This releases a tremendous amount of light, heat, and
radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei
of new elements.
• Reaction inside the star that resulted in the formation of
nuclei of new elements.
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
PROTON-PROTON CHAIN
• Stars converts hydrogen to helium
The first step involves the fusion of two hydrogen
1 2
nuclei H (protons) into deuterium H, releasing a
positron as one proton changes into a neutron, and
a neutrino (this reaction takes an average of 10
billion years to complete)
1H + 1H → 2H + e+ + ν + 0.42 MeV
e
• The positron immediately annihilates with one of
the hydrogen's electrons, and their mass energy is
carried off by two gamma ray photons.
• e+ + e- → 2γ + 1.02 MeV
• the deuterium produced in the first stage can
fuse with another hydrogen to produce a light
isotope of helium,
• He H + H → He + γ + 5.49 MeV
3 2 1 3
• Finally, after millions of years, two of the helium nuclei
• 3He produced can fuse together to make the common
helium isotope 4He, releasing two hydrogen nuclei to
start the reaction again through three different paths
called PP1, PP2 and PP3:
• PP1
• 3He +3He → 4He + 1H + 1H + 12.86 MeV (megaelectron
volts)
 PP2
3He +
→ 7Be +γ
4He
• The complete PP1 chain reaction
7Be
releases a net energy of 26.7 MeV.
+ e- → 7Li + νe PP1 chain is dominant in
temperatures of 10-14 million
4He + Kelvin. Below 10 million Kelvin,
7Li + 1H → 4He the PP chain does not produce
much 4He
 PP3
3 4 7
He + He → Be + γ
7
Be + 1H → 8
B+γ
8
8 Be + e+ +
B → • PP2 chain is dominant in
νe temperatures of 14-23 million
Kelvin
8 4
Be ↔ He + 4He
P – P CHAIN
The entire three-step process releases about 26.7
MeV (megaelectronvolts) of energy. Emphasize that
the energy released is responsible for the thermal
pressure that pushes against gravity. It is also
responsible for the light, heat and radiation emitted
by the star. A different process facilitates hydrogen
fusion in mainsequence stars with temperature
greater than 15 million K.
• The core of a star becomes comprised
of He as H is depleted, while H fusion
only occurs in a shell around it. Due to
this process, the temperature and
density of the core of the star increases
up to 100 million K. The star’s thermal
pressure causes it to push out H gas. The
star balloons into a red giant
STAR WITH A DENSE HELIUM CORE AND A HYDROGEN SHELL EXPANDS
TO A RED GIANT DUE TO INCREASE PRESSURE
 TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS

• Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction involves the

fusion of three 4He atoms in the following steps:
4He + 4He → 8Be
8Be + 4He → 12C + γ
The star can keep growing into a supergiant as it
accumulates mass. Apha fusion processes continue in the
core via the alpha ladder.
• Main-sequence stars hotter than 15 million K could
facilitate the production of helium once carbon was
present from alpha processes. This happens through a
process where 12C is used as a catalyst known as the
carbon fusion cycle or the CNO cycle.
• This process involves repeated proton capture and beta-
plus decay
CNO CYCLE