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• apology,
• promise,
• agreement
• acceptance
• advice
• suggestion
• warning
• requests
• betting
• to second
• to vote
• to abstain
Searle’s Five Categories of Speech Acts
Representatives: the speaker is committed in varying degrees
to the truth of a proposition:
e.g. ‘affirm’, ‘believe,’ ‘conclude’, ‘report’;
So a speech act like ‘and that is enough for today’ can only be taken as a
declaration that the lesson has ended if:
• I have the authority to perform the speech act;
• If the hearers are in a position to perform the required action;
• And if there is sincerity.
• If any of these conditions is lacking, then the hearers will deduce that they
have to make a different interpretation of the speech act.
Indirect Speech Acts
• For many reasons, perhaps because we are
abiding by the politeness principle, for
example, and we don’t wish to impose – we
may ask for something to be done indirectly.
‘Can you pass the salt?’ is not really a
question, but a directive; and answer of ‘yes’,
without an attempt to pass it would be totally
inappropriate and would violate the maximum
of relevance.
Sentence type and illocutionary force
• The three basic sentence types (declarative,
interrogative, imperative) are typically
associated with the three basic illocutionary
forces:
• Declarative: asserting/ stating;
• Interrogative: asking/questioning;
• imperative: ordering/requesting.
Difference between direct and indirect
speech acts
• A direct match between a sentence type and an illocutionary force,
equals a direct speech act.
• In addition, explicit performatives, which happen to be in the
declarative form, are also taken to be direct speech acts, because
they have their illocutionary force explicitly named by the
performative verb in the main part of the sentence.