unit1-ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING

UNIT _I
Facilitator: Tresa Joseph

ECE Dept.
Faculty of Engineering, Christ University, Bangalore
Mission Vision Core Values

Christ University is a nurturing ground for an Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
individual’s holistic development to make effective Love of Fellow Beings | Social
contribution to the society in a dynamic environment Responsibility | Pursuit of Excellence
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ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL

RECORDING 9 hrs
 The origin of Bio-potentials
 Bio-potential electrodes
 biological amplifiers
 ECG.
 EEG
 EMG
 PCG
 EOG
 lead systems and recording methods, typical waveforms
and signal characteristics
Excellence and Service

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Introduction of Bio potential:

Electrical potentials exist across the membranes of
virtually all cells of the body.
In addition, some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells, are
capable of generating rapidly changing electrochemical
impulses at their membranes, and these impulses are used to
transmit signals along the nerve or muscle membranes.
In still other types of cells, such as glandular cells,
macrophages, and ciliated cells, local changes in membrane
potentials also activate many of the cells’ functions.

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Stages of Bio potential
Resting or
membrane Action Potential: After potential
potential: Depolarization Repolarization
Polarization

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Measuring the Membrane Potential
Membrane potential (MP) - a transmembrane potential

difference that exists between the inner and outer surfaces of
the plasma membrane.
Resting potential (RP) - a membrane potential of excitable
cells that are at rest. In other words, RP - a special case of
membrane potential

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Depolarization Stage.
At this time, the membrane suddenly becomes very
permeable to sodium ions, allowing tremendous numbers of
positively charged sodium ions to diffuse to the interior of
the axon. The normal “polarized” state of –90 millivolts is
immediately neutralized by the inflowing positively charged
sodium ions, with the potential rising rapidly in the positive
direction. This is called depolarization.

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Action potential
Action potentials are rapid changes in the membrane
potential that spread rapidly along the nerve fiber membrane

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Repolarization Stage
Within a few 10,000ths of a second after the membrane

becomes highly permeable to sodium ions, the sodium
channels begin to close and the potassium channels open
more than normal. Then, rapid diffusion of potassium ions to
the exterior re-establishes the normal negative resting
membrane potential. This is called repolarization of the
membrane

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Sodium-potassium pump

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All or Nothing Law
“Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or

intensity of the stimulus, the action potential for is always
same for any given cell.”

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Bio electric potentials
Stages Name of the potential Value
Polarization Resting membrane -70 mv

potential
Depolarization Action potential +30mv
Repolarization Resting membrane -70 mv

potential

Action potential is analogous in electronics to the behavior of a
monostable multivibrator which, when triggered, gives an
output pulse of fixed pulse width and returns to its original
state.
Continuous rapid trigger pulses cannot change the state of the

cell.After repolarization, the cell does not depolarize
immediately even if a stimulus is given.
There is some refractory period after which the application of a

stimulus can depolarize the cell. This is similar to the
monostable multivibrator.
This cell potential across the cell membrane exists because of

varying ionic concentration in the inside and outside of the cell.
It is mainly due to the difference in the Na+ and K+ ion
concentration inside and outside the cell. The Na+/K+ ion
concentration is 1/30 on the inside of the cell and it is 10/1 on
the outside of the cell.
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videos

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Bio potential electrodes
1. Skin Surface electrodes: Electrodes used to

measure potentials from the surface of the skin.
2. Needle Electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the
skin to record potential from local region of the
brain or potentials from a specific group of cells
3. Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure
bioelectric potential near or within a single cell.

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Skin surface electrodes

1.Metal Plate Electrode
• One of the most frequently used forms of biopotential

electrodes is the metal-plate electrode.
• It consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin.
• An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish and

maintain the contact.
• Two types
• Cylindrical Type
• Disk type

Limb Electrode (Cylindrical type)
• Used with electrocardiography
• Flat metal plate bent into a cylindrical segment
• A terminal is placed on its outside surface near one

end is used to attach the lead wire to the
electrocardiograph
• A post, placed on the same side near the center, is

used to connect the electrode and hold it in place
on an arm or leg.
• Made of German Silver (a nickel-silver alloy)
• The concave surface is covered with electrolyte gel.

Metal Disk Electrodes
• Used as a chest electrode for recording ECG or in cardiac

monitoring for long term recording.
• Consists of a large disk of plastic foam material

with a silver plated disk on one side attached to
a silver-plated snap
• Covered with a layer of electrolyte gel and the

pressed against the patient’s chest wall
• Electrode side of the foam is covered with an

adhesive material that is compatible with the
skin.
• Also fabricated from metal foils (primarily silver

foil) , Stainless steel, platinum or gold plated
disks and are applied as single-use disposable
electrodes.

Suction Electrode
Body Surface Electrode – 2
• Modification of metal-plate electrode that require no straps

or adhesives for holding it in place
• Frequently used in precordial (chest) leads
• Consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that

makes contact with the skin at its base.
• A Lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder
• A rubber suction bulb fits over its other base.
• Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface.
• The bulb is squeezed and placed on the chest wall and then the bulb is released and applies
suction against the skin, holding the electrode assembly in place.
• Suction & pressure of the contact surface against the skin creates irritation
• Small contacting area with a large overall size
• Higher source impedance compared to other metal type surface electrodes.
Body Surface Electrode – 3
Floating Electrodes
• Offer a suitable technique to reduce motion
artifacts
• The actual electrode / metal element is recessed

in a cavity so that it does not come in contact
with the skin itself.
• Element is surrounded by electrolyte gel in the

cavity
• The cavity does not move with respect to the

metal
• Thus it does not produce any mechanical

movement of the electrode-electrolyte interface
layer of charge.
• In practice the electrode is filled with electrolyte gel and then attached to the skin surface by means of a
double-sided adhesive tape ring.
• The electrode element can be a disk made of a metal such as silver coated with AgCl.

Internal Electrodes
• Used within the body to detect biopotentials
• The electrode itself or the lead wire crosses the skin (percutaneous electrodes)
• Entirely different from body surface electrodes

• They do not have to contend with the electrolyte-skin interface and its associated
limitations.
• The skin itself is the electrolyte for the electrode-electrolyte interface.
• No electrolyte gel is required to maintain this interface, because extracellular fluid

is present.

Needle Electrodes
• Consists of a solid needle, usually made of stainless steel, with a sharp point.
• The shank of the needle is insulated with a coating such as an insulating

varnish; only the tip is left exposed.
• A lead wire is attached to the other end of the needle, and the joint is
encapsulated in a plastic hub to protect it.
• Frequently used in electromyography.
• Principally for acute measurements, because their stiffness and size make
them uncomfortable for long term implantation.

Needle Electrodes
• When it is placed in particular

muscle, it obtains an EMG from that
muscle acutely and can be then
removed.
• The electrode consists of stainless

steel hypodermic needles placed
subcutaneously on each limb.
• Lead wires with special connectors

attached to the needle at the hub
connects the electrodes to the
instrument.

Cross Sectional view of skin and muscle showing needle
electrode in place

Schemes of Introducing electrodes into the skin
• A fine wire often made of stainless steel ranging in diameter 25 to 125 µm is insulated
with an insulating varnish to within a few millimeters of tip.
• It is bent back onto itself to form a J-shaped structure.
• The needle is inserted through the skin into the muscle at the desired location to the
desired depth.
• It is then slowly withdrawn, leaving the electrode in place.
• The bent over portion of the wire serves as a barb holding the wire in place in the
muscle.
• To remove the wire, a mild uniform force is applied to straighten out the barb is pulled
out through the wire’s track.

Schemes of Introducing electrodes into the skin
• Wire electrodes chronically implanted in active muscles undergo a great amount of

flexing as the muscle moves
• Cause the wire to slip as it passes through the skin
• Increase irritation and risk of infection at this point.
• Helical electrode and lead wire
• Made from very fine insulated wire coiled into a tight helix of approximately 150µm
diameter that is placed in the lumen of the inserted needle.
• The uninsulated barb protrudes from the tip of the needle and is bent back along
the needle before insertion.
• Holds the wire in place when the needle is removed from the muscle.

Microelectrodes
• To measure potential across the cell membrane
• Smaller in size with respect to the cell dimension

• Avoids causing serious injury
• Doesn’t change the cell’s behavior.
• Tip diameter ranging from approximately 0.05 to 10µm
• Two types
• Metal
• Micropipette

Metal Microelectrodes
• Fine needle of strong metal

• Stainless Steel
• Platinum-iridium alloy
• Tungsten
• Compound tungsten carbide
• Insulated with an appropriate insulator up

to its tip.
• Usually produced by electrolytic etching
• The etched metal needle is then

supported in a larger metallic shaft that is
then insulated.

Supported Metal Microelectrodes
• A strong insulating material (usually glass) that can be drawn to a fine point makes up the basic
support.
• A metal with good conductivity constitutes the contacting portion of the electrode.

Micropipette Electrode
• Prepared from glass capillaries
• Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the desired size (usually about 1µm) in diameter.

Micropipette Electrode
• Prepared from glass capillaries
• Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the desired size (usually about
1µm) in diameter.
• The central region of a piece of capillary tubing is heated to the softening

point
• It is then rapidly stretched to produce the constriction
• Is then broken apart at the constriction to produce a pipette structure.
• Filled with an electrolyte solution frequently 3M KCL
• A Cap containing a metal electrode is then sealed to the pipette.

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Bio Amplifier
Why is Bio Amplifier Required?
Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude
and low frequency. Therefore, to increase the amplitude
level of biosignals amplifiers are designed.
The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further

analysis and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric
waveforms.
Amplifiers that have been designed for this type of
processing of bio potentials are known as bio amplifiers

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Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers

• The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The range of value
lies between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications. Higher impedance value
reduces distortion of the signal.
• When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body, the input circuit should be
protected. electric currents produced by the bioamplifiers can result shock in the patient
.Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection circuits, to prevent the
patients from electrical shocks.
• Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range, the voltagegain
value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.
• Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.
• A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
• A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater than 80dB to
reduce the interference from common mode signal.
The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.

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Biological Signal Amplifiers

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• Usually, a 3-amplifier setup forms the instrumentation amplifier circuit.
• The output from the transducer is given as input to the instrumentation
amplifier. Before the signal goes to the next stage, a special amplifier is
required with high CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading
effects. Such a special amplifier is an instrumentation amplifier, which does
all the required process.
• the amplifier on the left side acts as non-inverting amplifiers. They are
combined together to form the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier.
The third op-amp is the difference amplifier, and it is the output of the
instrumentation amplifier. The output from the difference amplifier V out is
the difference between two input signals given at the input points. V O1 is the
output from op-amp 1 and VO2 is the output from op-amp 2.

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ECG (Electrocardiogram)
or
EKG (Electrokardiogram)

HEART
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The main function of heart is to pump blood through 2

circuits
1.Pulmonary circuit-through the lungs to oxygenate the
blood and remove carbon dioxide
2. Systemic circuit-to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissue
Because the heart moves blood through 2 seperate circuits,it

is sometime described as dual pump.

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The circulation of the blood through heart

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Electrical and mechanical sequence of heart beat
Electrical activity of heart

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Inorder to beat heart required 3 types of cells:
1. Rhythm generators,which produce an eletrical signal(SA

node or normal pacemaker)(initiates each electrical and
mechanical cycle)
2. Conductors to spread the pacemaker signal
3. Contractile cells(myocardium)to mechanically pump
blood.

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Mechanical activity of heart

Electrical signal
causes
mechanical
pumping of the
heart

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Electrocardiogram(ECG SIGNAL WAVEFORM):
An electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical

activity of the heart

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Generation of ECG wave

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Amplitude and time duration of different components of ECG

wave
P-Wave 0.25 mV
R-Wave 1.60 mV
Q-Wave 25 % of R-Wave
T-Wave 1 TO 0.5 mV
P-R interval 0.12 to 0.20 Sec
Q-T interval 0.35 to 0.44 Sec
S-T interval 0.05 to 0.15 Sec
P-wave interval 0.11 Sec
QRS interval 0.09 Sec

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Electrodes and leads
A 12-lead ECG paints a complete picture of the heart's electrical activity

by recording information through 12 different perspectives.

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COLOUR CODE
RA (Right Arm) - Anywhere
between the right shoulder and
right elbow
» RL (Right Leg) - Anywhere
below the right torso and above
the right ankle
» LA(Left Arm) - Anywhere
between the left shoulder and the
left elbow
» LL (Left Leg) - Anywhere below
the left torso and above the left
ankle

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In 12-lead ECG, 12 perspectives of the heart's activity using different angles through
two electrical planes - vertical and horizontal planes.
Vertical plane (Frontal Leads):

By using limb electrodes, you get 6 frontal leads that provide information
about the heart's vertical plane:
Lead I
Lead II
Lead III
Augmented Vector Right (aVR)
Augmented Vector Left (aVL)
Augmented vector foot (aVF)
Leads I, II, and III require a negative and positive electrode (bipolarity) for
monitoring. On the other hand, the augmented leads-aVR, aVL, and aVF-are
unipolar and requires only a positive electrode for monitoring.

Einthoven’s bipolar limb lead Christ University
A lead is a glimpse of the electrical activity of the heart

from a particular angle.
• Einthoven proposed three types of lead.
• The left arm, right arm and left leg are used to get leads I, II
and III.
• The hypothetical equilateral triangle formed by leads I, II, III
is known as Einthoven triangle.
• In this Einthoven’s method following assumptions are made.
They are-
 The frontal plane represents the electrical axis of the heart is a
two dimensional vector.
 The origin of the vector is near the centre of an equilateral
triangle.
 He further assumed that ECG potentials at the shoulders are
equal to the potentials at the wrists.
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Lead I configuration is between left arm and right

arm. The voltage between the (positive) left arm (LA)
electrode and right arm (RA) electrode is detected in
this lead. It is given by
I = LA − RA……………………………(1)

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Lead II configuration is between left leg (LL) and the right

arm (RA). The voltage between the (positive) left leg (LL)
electrode and the right arm (RA) electrode is detected in this
lead. It is given by:
II = LL − RA……………………………..(2)

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Lead III configuration is between left leg (LL) and left arm
(LA). The voltage between the (positive) left leg (LL)
electrode and the left arm (LA) electrode is detected in this
lead. It is given by
III = LL − LA…………………………..(3)

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Einthoven’s bipolar limb lead
Cardiograph plane
Einthoven’s triangle
To measure the heart's

electrical activity
accurately, proper
electrode placement is
crucial.

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The principle behind Einthoven's triangle describes how electrodes RA, LA

and LL do not only record the electrical activity of the heart in relation to
themselves through the aVR, aVL and aVF leads. They also correspond with
each other to form leads I (RA to LA), II (RA to LL) and III (LL to LA).
As a result, they form an equilateral triangle. Hence it's called the Einthoven's
triangle, named after Willem Einthoven who invented the first practical ECG.
Keep in mind that RL is neutral (also known as point zero where the electrical
current is measured). RL doesn't come up in ECG readings, and is considered
as a grounding lead that helps minimize ECG artifact.

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Wilson’s central terminal or unipolar leads

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CONTD..
The next type of lead is unipolar lead introduced by Wilson in 1944. In this
method the ECG is recorded between central electrode and exploratory
electrode. The central electrode is obtained by connecting LA, LL and RA
through equal resistors. But this method gives very small amplitude therefore
it should be modified. The modification is done in augmented unipolar lead.
Except the exploratory electrode, other two electrodes are connected to form
the central electrode. So here amplitude is enhanced. The central of the
triangle is known as Wilson’s central terminal. The augmented limb leads are
known as the aVR, aVL and aVF are obtained by using the exploring
electrode on the limb indicated by the lead name, with the reference being
Wilson’s central terminal without the exploring limb lead.

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Chest (Precordial) leads
Here the heart is assumed to be placed at the center of the

triangle. The six lead measure projection of the heart into six
axes. It helps to view and analysis the electrical activity of
the heart from the different perspective in the frontal plane.
Wilson’s central terminal is used as the reference for the six
chest lead.

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Horizontal Plane (Transverse Leads)
By using 6 chest electrodes, you get 6 transverse leads that
provide information about the heart's horizontal plane: V1,
V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6.
Like the augmented leads, the transverse leads are unipolar

and requires only a positive electrode. The negative pole of
all 6 leads is found at the center of the heart. This is
calculated with the ECG.

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Contd..
• » V1 - Fourth intercostal space on the right sternum
» V2 - Fourth intercostal space at the left sternum
» V3 - Midway between placement of V2 and V4
» V4 - Fifth intercostal space at the midclavicular line
» V5 - Anterior axillary line on the same horizontal level as V4
» V6 - Mid-axillary line on the same horizontal level as V4 and V5

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ECG signal characteristics
When interpreted accurately, an ECG can detect and monitor a host of heart conditions -
from arrhythmias to coronary heart disease to electrolyte imbalance.
• Tachycardia
• Bradycardia

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P-wave Abnormalities Seen in Lead
Right atrial enlargement is seen as a taller than normal P-

wave( increased amplitude)
Left atrial enlargement seen as a P-wave with a notch in it.

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S-T Changes
myocardial ischemia
myocardial infarction

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EEG
ELECTROENCEPHALO GRAM
DENOTE THE POTENTIAL FLUCTUATIONS RECORDED FROM THE BRAIN

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ELECTROENCEPHALO GRAM (EEG)

EEG is the recorded re presentation of bioelectric potentials generated by the
neuronal activity of the brain.
The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the activity of large numbers
(populations) of neurons.
First recorded by Hans Berger in 1929.
EEG recordings are noninvasive, painless, do not interfere much with a human
subject’s ability to move or perceive stimuli, are relatively low-cost.
Electrodes measure voltage-differences at the scalp in the microvolt (μV)
range.
Voltage-traces are recorded with millisecond resolution

• EEG potentials measured at the surface of the scalp, actually represent the
combined effect of potentials from a fairly wide region of the cerebral cortex
and from various points beneath.
• Experiments have shown that the frequency of the EEG seems to be

affected by the mental activity of a person.
• The frequencies of these brain waves range from 0.5 to 100Hz, and their
character is highly dependent on the degree of activity of the cerebral
cortex.
• Some of these are characteristics of specific abnormalities of the brain,

such as epilepsy ,brain tumours,brain haemorrhage.

The cerebral cortex

• The neurons, like the other cells of the body, are electrically
polarized at rest.
• The interior of the neuron is at a potential of about -70 mV
relative to the exterior.
• When a neuron is exposed to stimulus above a certain
threshold, a nerve impulse, seen as a change in membrane
potential, is generated which spreads in the cell resulting in
the depolarization of the cell. Shortly afterwards
repolarization occurs.
• The EEG signal can he picked up with electrodes either from
the scalp or directly from the cerebral cortex.
• The peak-to-peak amplitude of the waves that can be
picked up from the scalp is normally 100 mV or less while
that on the exposed brain, is about 1 rnV.The
frequency varies greatly with different behavioral states.
• The normal EEC frequency content
ranges from 0.5 to 100Hz.
• The nature of the wave varies over the different parts of a
scalp.
EEG waveform types
Frequency Region of
Brain wave Mental State Voltage range
range activity
Awake, quiet, Occipital

resting Also from
Alpha(α) 8 to 13 Hz state,creativity,sup 20-200µV parietal and
erlearning,relaxati frontal regions of
on,meditation the scalp
High mental
activity Parietal &
Beta(β) 14 to 50 Hz “
(tension),concentr temporal regions
ation,focus
Emotional stress,
Theta (θ) 4 to 7 Disappointment, “
Frustration
Deep sleep
(infancy), serious
Delta(δ) < 3.5 Hz Within the cortex
organic brain
disease,

EEG Waveform types

EEG waveform types
• When the awake subject’s attention is directed to some specific type of mental
activity, the alpha waves are replaced by asynchronous waves of higher frequency
but lower amplitudes.
• Above figure demonstrates the effect on the alpha waves of simple opening the eyes
in bright light and then closing them again.
• The visual sensation causes immediate cessation of the alpha waves; these are
replaced by low-voltage, asynchronous waves.
EEG Waveforms
Stage 1
Awake & Alert
Drowsy
(Mixed frequencies)
(Alpha waves)
light sleep Normal sleep
Paradoxical or rapid
Deeper slow wave
eye movement (REM)
sleep
sleep

EEG Waveforms

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR EEG
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EEG leads

The 10-20 Electrode system
• The system most often used to place electrodes for monitoring the clinical EEG is the
International Federation 10-20 System.
• So named because electrode spacing is based on intervals of 10-20 percent of the

distance between specified points on the scalp.
• This system uses certain anatomical landmarks to standardize placement of EEG

electrodes.
• The differential amplifier requires a separate ground electrode plus differential inputs to
the following three types of electrode connections.
1. Between each member of a pair (bipolar)
2. Between one monopolar lead and a distant reference electrode (usually attached
one or both ear lobes)
3. Between one monopolar lead and the average of all.
• Differential recording cancels far-field activity common to both electrodes, thus

responses are localized.
• The potential changes that occur are amplified by high gain, differential, capacitive
coupled amplifiers.
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Each electrode placement site has a letter to identify the lobe, or area of the
brain it is reading
from: Pre-frontal (Fp),Frontal (F),Temporal (T),Parietal (P),Occipital(O)and

Central (C).
There are also (A AND Z) sites: Z refers to an electrode placed on the midline
sagittal plane of the skull, (, Fz, Cz, Oz)
"Z" electrodes are often utilized as 'grounds' or 'references

The "A" (sometimes referred to as "M") found just behind the outer ear
Even numbered electrodes (2,4,6,8) refer to electrode placement on the right

side of the head, whereas odd numbers (1,3,5,7) refer to those on the left;
.

The 10-20 Electrode system

The 10-20 Electrode system…
• Electrodes must be small
• Must be easily affixed to the scalp with minimal disturbance of the hair.
• Must not cause discomfort.
• Must remain in place for extended periods of time.
• The recording area on the surface of the scalp is degreased by cleaning it

with alcohol.
• A conducting paste is applied, full electrical contact with the surface.
• Nonpolarizable Ag/AgCl electrodes are glued to the scalp with a glue

(collodion) , or held in place using rubber straps

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EEGs in Diagnosis
The purpose of the clinical EEG is to help neurologists

diagnose disease. The pathological states most commonly
diagnosed using EEG are:
Brain death (legal death)

Brain tumors
Epilepsy
Multiple Sclerosis
Sleep Disorder

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Abnormal EEG

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Brain death
A sustained absence of EEG signal is a clinical measure of brain
death and can be used in deciding whether to transplant a heart,
liver, or lung or whether to shut down the life sustaining
equipment

Abnormal EEG, during an epilepsy
Representative abnormal EEG Waveforms in different types of epilepsy

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Electromyogram (EMG)
 Electromyogram (EMG) is a technique for

evaluating and recording the activation
signal of muscles.
 EMG is performed by an electromyograph,
which records an electromyogram.
 Electromyograph detects the electrical
potential generated by muscle cells
when these cells contract and relax.

• Muscle is organized functionally on the basis of the motor unit.
• A motor unit is defined as one motor neuron and all of the muscle
fibers it innervates.
• When a motor unit fires, the impulse (action potential) is carried

down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where the nerve
contacts the muscle is called the neuromuscular junction, or the
motor end plate.
• The potentials are measured at the surface of the body, near a

muscle of interest or directly from the muscle by penetrating the
skin with needle electrodes.
• EMG potentials range between less than 50 μV and up to 20 to

30 mV, depending on the muscle under observation.
Muscle Structure/EMG

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ELECTRODE TYPES
Intramuscular -
Needle Electrodes
Extramuscular - Surface
Electrodes

• The EMG pattern is usually a summation of the individual action potentials from the
fibers consisting the muscle or muscles being measured.
• The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level,

recruitment order or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement.
• There are two kinds of EMG in widespread use:

1. Surface EMG
2. Intramuscular (needle and fine-wire) EMG.

A needle electrode or a needle containing two fine-wire electrodes is
inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue.
• Abnormal spontaneous activity might indicate some nerve and/or muscle damage
• The shape, size, and frequency of the resulting motor unit potentials are analyzed.

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EMG PROCEDURE
• Clean the site of application

of electrode;
• Insert needle/place surface
electrodes at muscle belly;
• Record muscle activity at
rest;
• Record muscle activity
upon voluntary contraction
of the muscle.

EMG Apparatus

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EMG Contd.
• Muscle Signals are

Analog in nature.
Analog Signal
• EMG signals are also
collected over a specific
period of time.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
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EMG processing:
Signal pick up Amplification

& Filtering
Computer Conversion of Analog

signals to Digital signals

EMG Applications
• EMG is used as a diagnostics tool

for identifying:
• Neuromuscular diseases,
assessing low-back pain
• Disorders of motor control.
• Sports health
• EMG signals are also used as:

• A control signal for prosthetic
devices such as prosthetic
hands, arms, and lower limbs.

• EMG signals have been targeted as
control for flight systems.
• The Human Senses Group at the NASA

Research Center at Moffett Field seeks to
advance man-machine interfaces by
directly connecting a person to a
computer.
• An EMG signal is used to substitute

for mechanical joysticks and
keyboards.
• EMG has also been used in research

towards a "wearable cockpit," which
employs EMG-based gestures to
manipulate switches and control sticks
necessary for flight in conjunction with a
goggle-based display.

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Phono cardigraphy (PCG)
 The graphical record of heart sound is known as Phono

Cardiogram.
 Auscultation: The technique of listening sound produced
by organs and vessels of the body is known as
auscultation.
 In PCG, different types of heart sounds are measured.
These heart sounds are due to the vibrations set up in the
blood inside the heart by the sudden closure of valves.

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• A Phonocardiogram is a recording of the heart sounds and

murmurs.
• Enables evaluation of the heart sounds and murmurs with

respect to the electric and mechanical events in the cardiac
cycle.
• Evaluation of the result is based on the basis of changes in the

wave shape and various timing parameters.

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With each heart beat ,the normal heart produces two

distinct sounds that is audible in the stethoscope-
described as” lub-dub”
Lub-caused by closure of antrioventricular valves-1st heart
sound-occurs durimg the QRS complex of ECG-just before
ventricular systole-30-40 hz-1/10th of second
Dub-second heart sound-caused by clousure odf semilunar
values-Occurs at the end of T wave of ECG-50-70 hz

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3rd heart sound-especaily in young adults-occurs from 0.1-

0.2sec-after 2nd heart sound-due to rush of blood from atria
to ventricle-due to some vibrations of ventricular walls-
<30hz
4th heart sound- atrial heart sound - not audible-may be

visible only on graphical recording-occurs when atria
actually do conract, sqeezing the reminder of blood into
ventricle

The fourth heart sound (valve openeing sound)attributed to the opening of
semilunar as well as atrioventricular valves
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Heart Sounds …

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CLASSIFICATION OF HEART SOUND
It is divided into four types

Valve closure sound
This sound occurs at the beginning of systole and at the beginning of diastole.
Ventricular filling sound
This sound is occurred at the time of filling of the ventricles.
Valve opening sound
This sound occurs at the time of opening of atrioventricular valves and semi lunar
valves.
Extra cardiac sound
This sound occur in mid systole or late systole or early diastole

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MURMERS
 In abnormal heart additional sounds are heard between

the normal heart sound. These additional sounds are
known as murmurs. Murmers is generally caused by
improper opening of the valves or by regurgitation.
 Means which results when the valves do not close
completely and allow some backward flow of blood
 Other reason-high velocity blood flow through small
opening

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Another cause-small opening in septum-presssure difference

causes blood to flow from left to right ventricle
High pitched sound
100-600 hz frequency
Heart Murmurs
Decreased
Flow through Backward flow
High rate of viscosity,
constricted through
flow through Septal defects which causes
valves incompetent
valves increased
(stenosis) valve
turbulence

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Case study

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Basic Block Diagram

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TYPES OF MICROPHONES USED IN PCG
• Measured using a specially designed microphone affixed

on the chest wall
• Sound waves are amplified, filtered and recorded and

then compared with pre determined samples
Air coupled microphone- Movement of chest is transferred
through the air cushion. It provides low mechanical
impedance to the chest.
Contact microphone – it is directly coupled to the chest
wall and provides high impedance, high sensitivity, and low
noise. Its light weight is also one of the advantageous factor.

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EOG
ELECTRO -OCULOGRAM

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EOG
• A measure of the variations in the corneal-retinal

potential as affected by the position and movement of the
eye
• Recording eye movements of a stationary subject: a
reference electrode is placed on the forehead, electrodes
are placed on the right and left temples for lateral eye
movement detection (for vertical eye movement
detection, one can also place electrodes above and below
an eye). This technique is also an indirect way to
evaluate the tracking and scanning of visual targets.

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EOG (ELECTROCULOGRAM)
Small surface electrodes are used to measure EOG.

The recording pen is centered on the recording paper,
corresponding to the voltage changes accompanying it
Electro oculography:
Recording of potentials generated by movement of

eyeballs

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Types
• Eye movements that function to stabilize the position of
the eye in space during head movements (Reflex eye
movements).
• Eye movements that function to redirect the line of sight
to follow a moving target or to attend to a new target of
interest (Voluntary eye movements).

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Lead placement

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Waveform

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Thanks

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UNIT _I

Facilitator: Tresa Joseph

Mission Vision Core Values

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL

Excellence and Service

Introduction of Bio potential:

Excellence and Service

Stages of Bio potential

Excellence and Service

Measuring the Membrane Potential

Membrane potential (MP) - a transmembrane potential

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Within a few 10,000ths of a second after the membrane

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

All or Nothing Law

“Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or

Excellence and Service

Bio electric potentials

Stages Name of the potential Value

Polarization Resting membrane -70 mv

Depolarization Action potential +30mv

Repolarization Resting membrane -70 mv

Excellence and Service

Continuous rapid trigger pulses cannot change the state of the

There is some refractory period after which the application of a

This cell potential across the cell membrane exists because of

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Bio potential electrodes

1. Skin Surface electrodes: Electrodes used to

Excellence and Service

Skin surface electrodes

Excellence and Service

• One of the most frequently used forms of biopotential

• It consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin.

• An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish and

Mission Vision Core Values

• Used with electrocardiography

• Flat metal plate bent into a cylindrical segment

• A terminal is placed on its outside surface near one

• A post, placed on the same side near the center, is

• Made of German Silver (a nickel-silver alloy)

• The concave surface is covered with electrolyte gel.

• Used as a chest electrode for recording ECG or in cardiac

• Consists of a large disk of plastic foam material

• Covered with a layer of electrolyte gel and the

• Electrode side of the foam is covered with an

• Also fabricated from metal foils (primarily silver

Mission Vision Core Values

• Modification of metal-plate electrode that require no straps

• Consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that

• A Lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder

• A rubber suction bulb fits over its other base.

• Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface.

• The actual electrode / metal element is recessed

• Element is surrounded by electrolyte gel in the

• The cavity does not move with respect to the