Ce 137 - Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering: Chapter 5 - Basic Engineering Seismology

Chapter 5 – Basic Engineering Seismology
CE 137 – STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS AND

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Engr. JJCA / 2nd Semester, AY 2016-2017 8/8/2019 11:00 AM
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
5.1. Earthquake Hazards

5.1.1. Overview of Natural Hazards
5.1.2. Effects of an Earthquake
5.1.3. Mitigation of Earthquake Hazards
5.2. Earth Systems and Seismology
5.2.1. Seismic Waves
5.2.2. Earth’s Structure
5.2.3. Earthquake Location
2
5.3. Plate Tectonics

5.4. Faults
5.4.1. Types of Faults
5.4.2. Faulting Mechanism
5.4.3. Fault Notation
5.5. Measurement of Earthquakes
5.5.1. Magnitude
5.5.2. Intensity
3
5.6. Maximum Earthquake Prediction

5.6.1. Crustal Faults
5.6.2. Reverse Faults
5.7. Temporal Distribution of Earthquakes
5.7.1. Poisson Distribution
5.7.2. Return Period
5.8. Ground Motion and Attenuation
4
5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
SEISMOLOGY
Comes from two Greek words “seismos” and
“logos” which studies earthquakes and the
movement of seismic waves through the earth.
Earthquake Engineering requires the concepts of

seismology (earthquake process) to study the
effects of ground shaking into structures.
5
 Earthquake is a sudden release of energy,

stored as elastic strains in the Earth’s crust
due to the rupture of a geologic fault, thru
seismic waves.
 It may affect areas at distances ten to

hundreds of kilometers (Bommer, 2005).
WATCH THIS
6
Typhoons
EQ’s
7
8
60% of the world lives in countries with a significant seismic hazard 9

10
11
12
 Hazard – the occurrence of an event (answers

the question “How frequent?”)
 Vulnerability – the exposure of a site to the
hazard (answers the question “How
susceptible?”)
 Risk – probability of damage in a site given the
level of hazard and its exposure to hazard
13

 Primary Hazard = Earthquakes
 Secondary Hazards
 Ground Shaking
 Tsunami
 Landslide
 Liquefaction
 Ground Failure/Rupture
 Rock Falls
 Fire
14

Effects of Earthquakes
WATCH ME
15

16

17

18

19

WATCH ME
20

21

22

23
24
25

 Presence of many
seismic sources poses
a serious threat to civil
engineering structures
 Shown at the right are
the past earthquakes
from 1907-2012
having magnitudes of
4.0 and above
Seismicity Map of the Philippines.
(Andaya, 2014) 26
5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

Seismic waves are waves of
energy that travels in the
Earth’s layers which are
produced by earthquakes or
other vibrations.
There are two types of

seismic waves:
 Body Waves Seismic waves
 Surface Waves
27
Seismic waves
28
 Body Waves can travel in the interior of the

earth which are released by deep earthquakes
 There are two types of body waves:

 P-Waves
 S-Waves
29
 P-Waves
 They are also known as
primary, compression or
longitudinal waves
 They can travel in solids
and liquids
 They travel parallel to the P-Wave
propagation of wave
30
 S-Waves
 They are also known as
secondary, transverse or
shear waves.
 The motion of the wave is
perpendicular to the
propagation of wave which
S-Waves
causes shearing
deformation
31
 S-Waves
 The motion of S-waves can
be expressed into its two
components
 Vertical Plane Movement
(SV)
 Horizontal Plane
Movement (SH) S-Waves
32
 The speed of body

waves travel varies
with the stiffness of
the material
 P-waves travel faster

than S-waves
Body Waves
33
 Surface Waves result from the interaction of

body waves and the surface and artificial
layers of the earth which are released by
shallow earthquakes
 There are two types of surface waves:

 Rayleigh Waves
 Love Waves
34
 Rayleigh Waves results from the interaction of

P-wave and an SV-wave
 These waves are responsible for the ground
shaking for most earthquakes
 They move like a rolling ocean wave which moves
both horizontally and vertically.
35
 Love Waves results from the interaction of an

SH wave with a soft layer of Earth’s surface
 Purely horizontal motion (only side-to-side motion)
36
 How to detect seismic

waves?
A seismograph detects,
amplifies, and records
earthquakes as well as
other ground motions
 A seismogram is the
ground-motion detector
of the seismograph
system.
Seismograph and Seismogram
37
38
Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
39

waves?
 Let x be the distance
from a fixed point to the
center of the pendulum
 Let y be the distance
from a fixed point to a
specific point on the
frame. In equilibrium, x = Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
y.
40

waves?
 Let k be the stiffness of
the spring
 Let m be the mass of the
pendulum
 Let u be the relative
displacement of the
pendulum to the frame Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
equal to x-y
41

waves?
 The equation of motion
becomes
mx  k ( x  y )  ku Eq. 5-1
 Replacing x by the
relative motion of the
frame to the ground u,
we have Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
mu  y  ku  0 Eq. 5-2
42

waves?
 Simplifying the equation
gives us
u  n 2u   y(t ) Eq. 5-3
 Ifdissipation of energy is
taken into account, we
have Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
u  2 nu  n u   y(t )

2
Eq. 5-4
43

waves?
 It can be seen from Eq.
5-3 and 5-4 that for any
structure, its response is
only dependent on its
natural period and
damping ratio given a
ground motion.
Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer
44
Earth’s Layers
 Crust – rocky and
brittle; thinnest layer
 Mantle – massive
solid but plastic
deformation occurs
 Core (hottest portion)
 Outer core - molten
 Inner core - solid
45
Earth’s Layers
 Lithosphere – that part
of the outer layer of
crust and rigid upper
mantle which is “plate”
in plate tectonics
 Asthenosphere – a
flowing solid material
in the mantle which
exhibits plasticity.
46
 The continental crust is

made up of light rocks
(mostly granite)
 The boundary of crust

and the upper mantle is
called Moho
discontinuity
47
 Lithosphere is the most

important ‘layer’ in
seismic hazard for two
reasons:
 Its exposure to
asthenosphere
 Its a place where large
earthquakes occurs
48
 Seismologists use the

seismic waves to look
into the interior of the
Earth.
 Shown at the right is
the motion of P and S
waves (conversion of S
to P is K) and
reflections at the
surface (PP, SS, PPP). Path of seismic waves in Earth’s layer
49
 Both P-waves and S-

waves travel in crust,
mantle, and inner core,
but S-waves become P-
waves in the outer core.
 The densest in the inner
core, followed by outer
core, etc.
Variation of the seismic wave velocities

and density in each layer.
50
 The hottest layer is the

core, followed by the
mantle.
 Temperature gradient
between the relatively
cool crust and hot mantle
causes the movement of
the lithosphere.
Variation of temperature in
each layer. 51

How to locate
earthquakes?
 Earthquakes can be
located using at least three
seismographs.
 Location (in terms of
epicentral distance) from a
single seismograph is
computed using the
velocity of P-waves and S-
waves
52

How to locate
earthquakes?
 The epicentral distance is
given by Eq. 5-5:
t p  s
d Eq. 5-5
1  1
vs vp
Where:
𝑑 is the epicentral distance
∆𝑡𝑝−𝑠 is the diff. in time of travel of
p-waves and s-waves
𝑣𝑠 , 𝑣𝑝 are velocities of s-waves and
p-waves respectively. 53

How to locate
earthquakes?
 The point of intersection
of three projected circles
made by three
seismographs is the
location of the
earthquake.
54
Seismic Stations
55
5.3. PLATE TECTONICS
Theory of Continental Drift

 Proposed by Alfred Wegener in early 1900’s
 The earth has only one large continent called
Pangaea 200 mya
 This earth mass broke into pieces that slowly
drifted into the present configuration of the
continents
56
Evidence of Continental Drift Theory
Drifting of continents from a single

57
land called Pangaea
Theory of Continental Drift

 This theory was discredited by scientists since
ocean floor is too strong to permit such motion
58

 Theory of Plate Tectonics was proposed by
Arthur Holmes in 1928.
 Earth’s surface is consists of a large number of

blocks called plates, which move relative to
each other.
 Relative deformation between plates occurs in

narrow zones near their boundaries.
59
 The continent is divided into six continental

plates (African, American, Antarctic, Australian-
Indian, Eurasian and Pacific) and 14 sub-
continental plates (Carribean, Cocos, Nazca,
Philippine, etc)
60
 Deformation in the plates can be aseismic or

seismic
 Aseismic – slow but continuous movement
 Seismic – caused by rupture between two merging
plates
 Many earthquakes occur at the plate

boundaries (subduction zone earthquakes /
interplate earthquakes)
61
62
 Holmes proposed that

the movement of
plates is caused by
Thermo-mechanical
equilibrium which is
governed by the
principle of convection.
63
 Convection currents
impose horizontal shear
stresses on the bottom
of plates, thus dragging
them in various
directions.
 Temperature gradient
causes the slab pull
towards the hotter
mantle.
64
 Types of Plate
Boundaries
 Spreading Ridge (plates
separate)
 Subduction Zones (plate
plunges beneath
another plate)
 Transform Faults
(shearing action of
plates)
65
 Types of Plate Boundaries

 Spreading Ridge – plates separate
 Subduction Zones – plate plunges beneath
another plate
 Transform Faults – shearing action of plates
Three types of plate boundaries

66

 Elastic energy builds up along the edges of two
plates in motion
 If shear strength of rocks is exceeded in the

plate movement, rupture occurs (thus
occurrence of earthquakes)
 It will take some time for a fault to rupture

again.
67
 This process is also known as Elastic Rebound

Theory
Stress and Deformation Response History

along the fault which repeats every period
Elastic Rebound Scheme T known as Return Period 68
Occurrence of earthquakes in each plate

boundary can be explained by Elastic
Rebound Theory:
 Spreading Ridge Boundaries
 Onlysmall earthquakes are present because of
lower rupture strength of rocks in these boundaries
 Subduction Zone Boundaries
 Verylarge earthquakes are present because of
higher rupture strength of rocks in these
boundaries
69
Occurrence of earthquakes in each plate

boundary can be explained by Elastic Rebound
Theory:
 Transform Fault Boundaries
 Largeearthquakes are also present which is
proportional to the fault’s rupture length
70
5.4. FAULTS
 These are discontinuities or cracks in the

earth’s surface that are the result of
differential motion in the crust (intraplate
motion)
 These are sources of many earthquakes due to

the slippage vertically or laterally along the
fault
71
5.4. FAULTS
 Largest found at the plate boundaries

(subduction zones also known as reverse faults
or trenches)
Hanging Wall and Foot Wall in a Fault 72

5.4. FAULTS
 These discontinuities
in the earth’s crust
are characterized by
their geometry:
 Fault Dip
 Strike (Azimuth)
 Fault Plane
 Rupture Surface
73
5.4. FAULTS
Ground Epicentral
surface Epicenter distance
Geometric Notation Site or
observer
1. Focus (hypocenter) Hypocentral
distance
2. Focal depth Focus or
3. Epicenter hypocenter
4. Epicentral distance
5. Hypocentral distance or
focal distance
74
5.4. FAULTS
Fault Geometry
75
5.4. FAULTS
Fault Geometry
 Dip Angle - Angle made by the fault wrt
horizontal (0-90 deg)
 Strike Angle - Orientation of fault at plan
view wrt to north (0-360 deg)
 Rake Angle - The direction of the angle wrt
the fault’s prevailing plunge/dip-slip plane.
76
5.4. FAULTS
Fault Types
 Strike-slip (Transform)
Fault
 Dip-slip Fault
 Normal Fault
 Thrust Fault (Dip < 450)
 Reverse Fault (Dip > 450)
 Oblique Faults
77
5.4. FAULTS
 Strike-Slip Faults
78
5.4. FAULTS
 Normal Faults
79
5.4. FAULTS
 Reverse and Thrust Faults
80
5.5. MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES

Intensity Scale – measures how destructive an
earthquake is
Relationship between Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale and Peak Ground
Acceleration (PGA).
PERCEIVED Not Very
Weak Light Moderate Strong Severe Violent Extreme
SHAKING Felt Strong
POTENTIAL moderate very

none none none very light light moderate heavy
DAMAGE /heavy heavy
INSTRUMENTAL
I II-III IV V VI VII VIII IX X+
INTENSITY
<0.1 0.17- 1.4-

PGA (%g's) 3.9-9.2 9.2-18 18-34 34-65 65-124 >124
7 1.4 3.9
81
I. Instrumental Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Feeble Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately
suspended objects may swing.
III. Slight Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Many do
not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to
the passing of a truck.
IV. Moderate Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes,
windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably. Dishes and windows rattle.
V. Rather Strong Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes and windows broken. Unstable
objects overturned. Clocks may stop.
VI. Strong Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware
broken; books off shelves; some heavy furniture moved or overturned; a few instances of
fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII. Very Strong Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good design and
construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in
poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by persons driving
motor cars.
VIII. Destructive Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings
with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks,
columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture moved.
IX. Ruinuous General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame
structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Buildings shifted off foundations.
X. Disastrous Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed
with foundation. Rails bent.
XI. Very Disastrous Few, if any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Catastrophic Total damage - Almost everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects
thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move.
82
 Advantages of Using
Intensity Scale
 Damage done by
earthquakes can be easily
understood by the public
 Historical Earthquakes can
be easily interpreted due
to absence of
seismographs
83
 Advantages of Using
Intensity Scale
 Links to Vulnerability of
Structures
 Emergency Management
and Response
 Post-Earthquake Financial
Decision-Making
84
 Disadvantages of Using Intensity Scale

 Intensityscale does not describe the energy
released by earthquakes
 Soil conditions are not incorporated
 Highly Subjective
85

Magnitude Scale measures the size of an
earthquake based on the energy released during the
shaking.
There are four major magnitude scales:

1. Local Magnitude
2. Body-Wave Magnitude
3. Surface-Wave Magnitude
4. Moment Magnitude
86
 Local/Richter Magnitude
(ML)
 Introduced in 1935
 Based on Antiquated Wood-
Anderson Seismographs
 Does not distinguish
different types of waves
 Ineffective for magnitudes
greater than 6.0 (Saturation Wood-Anderson Charles Francis
Seismograph Richter
Effect)
87

 Surface-wave
Magnitude (Ms)
 Based on the amplitude
of Rayleigh waves
 Effective for measuring
shallow earthquakes
 Ineffective for
magnitudes greater than
8.0 and less than 6.0 Beno Gutenberg
88

 Body-wave Magnitude
(Mb)
 Effective for deep
earthquakes
 Based on the first few
cycles of P-waves
 Ineffective for
magnitudes greater than Beno Gutenberg Charles Francis
Richter
6.0
89
 Moment Magnitude (Mw)

 Introducedin 1977
 Based on the measure of
seismic moment Mo (Hanks
Hiro Kanamori
and Kanamori, 1979)
M o  AD Eq. 5-6
Where: Mo = seismic moment about point O

μ = rupture strength of the material
along the fault
A = rupture area
D = average slip along the rupture 90
 Moment Magnitude (Mw)

 The moment magnitude of an earthquake is
obtained by the equation below (Hanks and
Kanamori, 1979) :
2
M w  log M o  10.7 Eq. 5-7
91
 Relationship of earthquake magnitudes.
92
Relationship of Moment Magnitude to other magnitude scales
 The total seismic energy released by an

earthquake is given by the expression:
log E  11.8  1.5M s Eq. 5-8
where:
E is the seismic energy in ergs (1 erg =
7.5x10-8 lb-ft)
Ms is the surface magnitude
93
5.6. MAXIMUM EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
 Two sets of empirical equations are used in

calculating maximum size of earthquakes
 Wellsand Coppersmith (1994)
 Papazachos et al., (2003)
 The former is used for crustal faults while the

latter is used for subduction zones
94
 Maximum magnitude (Mw) can be expressed as

a function of rupture length L, rupture width W,
rupture area A and slip rates S
95

 Rupture Length (L)
 The extent of horizontal fault rupture measured in the
earth’s surface (km).
 Rupture Width (W)
 The length of fault’s rupture plane perpendicular to the
direction of the dip (km).
 Rupture Area (A)
 The contact area of the footwall and the hanging wall
(km2).
 Slip Rate (S)
 The rate at which the fault moves; expressed in cm/sec
96
WELLS AND COPPERSMITH RELATIONSHIPS
 Empirical relations established for earthquake

size prediction in a fault found in crusts.
 Based on regression of earthquakes worldwide
and follows lognormal distribution
M w  4.07  0.98 log A  log A  0.24 Eq. 5-8
M w  5.08  1.16 log L  log L  0.22 Eq. 5-9
log W  1.01  0.32M w  M w  0.30 Eq. 5-10
*Note: L or W are not used to predict A; use only L or W to

predict Mw. 97
PAPAZACHOS ET AL., RELATIONSHIPS

 Empirical equation developed for subduction
zones and is used also for prediction of
tsunamis.
 Also based on statistical regression which
follows lognormal distribution.
log L  0.55M  2.19  M  0.18 Eq. 5-11
log A  0.86M  2.82  M  0.25 Eq. 5-12
log W  0.31M  0.63 Eq. 5-13
log S  0.64M  2.82 Eq. 5-14
98
 To solve for the probability of occurrence, use

the Z-transform formula for normal and
lognormal distribution.
X X
Z Eq. 5-15

log X  log X
Z Eq. 5-16
 log X
99
 The probability of occurrence of an event to

occur is given by
1
Z 1  z2
P( X  x)   e 2
dz Eq. 5-15

2
100
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5.1.
 Determine the maximum earthquake size of a

crustal fault having a rupture length of 150 km.
Also determine the probability that the rupture
width of the said fault is between 120 km and
160 km.
101
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5.2.
 Determine the most probable value of the slip

rate and rupture area of a reverse fault having
a maximum earthquake recorded of 7.5.
102
5.7. TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
 Earthquakes have the same concept of return

period just like floods, rainfall and wind.
 Return period (RP) is the time it takes for a

natural phenomenon to occur with a specified
probability of occurrence.
103
 Probability of occurrence (PE) is the chance of

a natural phenomenon to occur which is
dictated by the desired structural performance
of a structure such as buildings, bridges or
dams.
 Occurrence of earthquakes are assumed to

follow Poisson Distribution.
104
 Poisson Distribution of Earthquakes

 The probability that an earthquake will occur given
an average number of earthquakes per year (mean
annual rate of exceedance, λ) is given by:
(  t ) n e  t
P ( , t , n )  Eq. 5-17
n!
105

 Poisson Distribution of Earthquakes
 The probability of zero earthquakes is
(  t ) 0 e  t
P( , t ,0)   e  t Eq. 5-18
0!
 The probability of exceeding zero earthquakes is
 t
PE  1  e Eq. 5-19
 We define the return period (RP) as

1
RP  Eq. 5-20
 106
 Assumptions in Poisson Distribution of

Earthquakes
 Occurrence of one earthquake is independent of
another earthquake
 Main shocks are only considered; foreshocks and
aftershocks are removed from the analysis to agree
with the Elastic Rebound Theory.
 The events are rare, hence magnitude of 4 and
above are only considered.
107
RETURN PERIOD
 Structures are designed either in terms of the
earthquake’s return period or probability of
exceedance.
 The National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP 2010) designs a structure having a
return period of 475 years or 10% probability of
being exceeded in 50 years design life of
buildings.
108
RETURN PERIOD
 The International Building Code (IBC) considers
to return periods of 475 years and 2475 years
(which corresponds to 2% probability of
exceedance)
109
RETURN PERIOD
 The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) code
considers a return period of 1000 years (7%
probability of exceedance in 75 years design
life).
 The design life of structures (t) is typically set to
30-50 years in buildings and 75 years for
bridges.
110
 Performance Based Design of Structures

Performance Level of Structures and Return Period of Earthquakes
Return Period Probability of Performance Level
(years) Exceedance (%)
100 20 Serviceability
Standard Code-
475 10
Based
975 5 High Performance
Very High
2475 2
Performance
111
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5.3.
 In the Hoenn region, the average number of

earthquakes of magnitude 4 is 20 earthquakes
per year. Find the probability that there will be
exactly a) 12 earthquakes; b) 15 earthquakes
in 2 years. Determine the probability of
exceeding 17 earthquakes in 1 year.
112
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5.4.
 Determine the design life of a structure that is

designed to withstand a 2475 year return
period with 1% probability of exceedance.
113
5.8. GROUND MOTION AND ATTENUATION
 Attenuation means the variation of (seismic)

waves as a function of distance.
 The nearer the site, the stronger the intensity of
the waves are.
 As the waves travel through a medium, the
wave weakens or “attenuates”.
WATCH ME
114
 Seismic waves travel faster in rocks than in

softer soil, hence the intensity of wave is less
felt.
 Given the distance of the fault to a site,
maximum magnitude of earthquake that may
affect a site and the soil type, the anticipated
ground shaking level can be estimated through
the use of attenuation relationships.
115
 Attenuation relationships follow lognormal

distribution, which is derived from regression of
several ground motions from strong ground
motion database.
 The general form of attenuation relationships is
given by
ln Y  FM ( M )  FD ( RJB , M )  FS (VS 30 , RJB , M )   T Eq. 5-21
where Y is the spectral acceleration given a natural period, FM, FD, and FS represent the magnitude
scaling, distance function, and site amplification, respectively; M is moment magnitude, RJB is the
closest distance to the surface projection of the fault and VS30 is the time-averaged shear-wave velocity
over the top 30 m of the site. The term ε is the number of standard deviations σT from the mean ground
motion parameter ln Y.
116
Engr. JJCA / 2nd Semester, AY 2014-2015 8/8/2019 11:00:59 AM
REFERENCES
 Kramer, S. L. (1999). Geotechnical Earthquake

Engineering.
 Slejko, D. (2011). Seismic Hazard Assessment.
ROSE School. Pavia, Italy.
 Zafra, R. G (2012). CE 137 Structural Dynamics
and Earthquake Engineering Lecture Notes.
University of the Philippines – Los Baños.
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Ce 137 - Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering: Chapter 5 - Basic Engineering Seismology

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Ce 137 - Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering: Chapter 5 - Basic Engineering Seismology

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Chapter 5 – Basic Engineering Seismology

CE 137 – STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS AND

5.1. Earthquake Hazards

5.3. Plate Tectonics

5.6. Maximum Earthquake Prediction

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Earthquake Engineering requires the concepts of

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

 Earthquake is a sudden release of energy,

 It may affect areas at distances ten to

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

60% of the world lives in countries with a significant seismic hazard 9

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

 Hazard – the occurrence of an event (answers

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.1. EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

There are two types of

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 Body Waves can travel in the interior of the

 There are two types of body waves:

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 The speed of body

 P-waves travel faster

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 Surface Waves result from the interaction of

 There are two types of surface waves:

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 Rayleigh Waves results from the interaction of

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 Love Waves results from the interaction of an

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 How to detect seismic

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

Free Body Diagram of a Seismometer

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 How to detect seismic

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 How to detect seismic

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY

 How to detect seismic

5.2. EARTH SYSTEMS AND SEISMOLOGY