Membrane Structure

and Function
• The plasma membrane
– Is the boundary that separates the living cell from its
nonliving surroundings
– The plasma membrane exhibits selective
permeability

Figure 7.1
• Concept 7.1: Cellular membranes are
fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
• the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL of
membrane structures describes the
molecular arrangement of the plasma
membrane and other membranes in
living organisms.
• The fluid mosaic model of membrane
structure
– States that a membrane is a fluid structure with a
“mosaic” of various proteins embedded in it

Figure 7.1
– Membrane proteins are dispersed and individually
inserted into the phospholipid bilayer

Hydrophobic region
of protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Figure 7.3 Hydrophobic region of protein

• The phospholipid bilayer is
dynamic.
• The type of hydrocarbon tails in
phospholipids
– Affects the fluidity of the plasma membrane

Fluid Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated hydro-

tails with kinks Carbon tails

(b) Membrane fluidity

Figure 7.5 B
• Phospholipids in the plasma membrane
– Can move sideways and exchange places within the
bilayer.
– flip-flop of molecules between layers rarely occurs

Lateral movement Flip-flop

(~107 times per second) (~ once per month)

(a) Movement of phospholipids

Figure 7.5 A
 • The steroid cholesterol
– Has different effects on membrane fluidity at
different temperatures

Cholesterol

Figure 7.5 (c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

 Membrane Chemistry and
Anatomy
• Membrane • Membrane
Lipids: Proteins:
–Phospholipids –Integral proteins
–Glycolipids –Peripheral
–Cholesterol proteins
 Membrane Chemistry and
Anatomy
• Phospholipids
– 75%, lipids that contain phosphorus
• the phospholipids line up in two parallel layers forming
a phospholipid bilayer.
• amphipathic - they contain both polar and nonpolar
regions.
• polar = “head”, nonpolar = fatty acid “tails:
• the molecules orient in the bilayer so that the heads
face outward on either side, toward the watery cytosol
and extracellular fluid (fluid outside the cells).
• the tails face each other in the membrane's interior.
• Glycolipids
– 5%, are also amphiphatic
– they appear only in the layer that faces the
extracellular fluid.
– glycolipids are target of certain bacterial toxin.
– they are important for adhesion among cells, may
mediate cell-to-cell recognition and
communication,
– contribute to regulation of cellular growth and
development.
glycolipid = lipid + carbohydrate

identification tags
allowing cells to
distinguish one type
of cell to another
adhesins
- microbial
proteins that
mediate
adhesions
to host cells
• cholesterol
– located among phospholipids in animal cells
– the stiff steroid rings of cholesterol strengthen the
membrane of an animal cell but decrease its
flexibility
– cholesterol maintains the fluidity and increase the
stability of the membrane, without cholesterol the
membrane would easily split apart.
 Membrane Proteins and Their
Functions
• A membrane
– Is a collage of different proteins embedded in the fluid
matrix of the lipid bilayer
Fibers of
extracellular
matrix (ECM)

Glycoprotein

Carbohydrate

Glycolipid EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE OF
MEMBRANE

Microfilaments
of cytoskeleton Cholesterol Peripheral Integral CYTOPLASMIC SIDE
protein protein OF MEMBRANE
Figure 7.7
• Integral proteins
– Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer

N-terminus

EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE

C-terminus
CYTOPLASMIC
a Helix SIDE
Figure 7.8
• glycoproteins
– proteins with attached sugar groups
– the sugar portion of a glycoprotein faces the extracellular
fluid
 What is the role of glycoproteins?
• they may help in recognition of, and interaction
with, other cells
• may also play a part in the recognition of hormones
and foreign
molecules
• some integral proteins
are channels that have
pore (hole) through
which ceratin
substances can flow
into and out of the cell.
• other integral proteins act as transporters (carriers)
to move a substance from one side of the
membrane to the other.
• integral proteins also • a molecule that
serve as recognition specifically binds to a
sites called receptors. receptor other than
– these are molecules that covalents bonds are
can identify and attach called a ligand of that
to a specific molecule, receptor.
such as a hormone, a
neurotransmitter, or a
nutrient, that is
important for some
cellular functions
• Peripheral proteins
– Are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the
membrane
– serve as regulator for membrane bound enzymes
– examples: ankyrin and spectrin
• some integral and peripheral proteins
are enzymes.
• other peripheral proteins facing the
cytosol serve as cytoskeleton anchors,
forming an attachment between the
plasma membrane and filaments of the
cytoskeleton
• An overview of six major functions of
membrane proteins
(a) Transport. (left) A protein that spans the membrane
may provide a hydrophilic channel across the
membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
(right) Other transport proteins shuttle a substance
from one side to the other by changing shape. Some
of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy ssource
to actively pump substances across the membrane.
ATP

(b) Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane Enzymes

may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to
substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases,
several enzymes in a membrane are organized as
a team that carries out sequential steps of a
metabolic pathway.

(c) Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have

a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape Signal
of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The
external messenger (signal) may cause a
conformational change in the protein (receptor) that
relays the message to the inside of the cell.

Figure 7.9 Receptor

(d) Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins serve as
identification tags that are specifically recognized
by other cells.

Glyco-
protein

(e) Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of adjacent cells

may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as
gap junctions or tight junctions (see Figure 6.31).

(f) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

(ECM). Microfilaments or other elements of the
cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins,
a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes
the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that
adhere to the ECM can coordinate extracellular and
intracellular changes (see Figure 6.29).

Figure 7.9
• Concept 7.2: Membrane structure
results in selective permeability

– A cell must exchange materials with its

surroundings, a process controlled by the plasma
membrane
 The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
• Hydrophobic molecules
– Are lipid soluble and can pass through the
membrane rapidly
• Polar molecules
– Do not cross the membrane rapidly
The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
 Transport Proteins
• Transport proteins
– Allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the
membrane
• Concept 7.3: Passive transport is
diffusion of a substance across a
membrane with no energy
investment
 Passive transport
• Diffusion
– Is the tendency for molecules of any substance to
spread out evenly into the available space
(a) Diffusion of one solute. The membrane Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)
has pores large enough for molecules
of dye to pass through. Random
movement of dye molecules will cause
some to pass through the pores; this
will happen more often on the side
with more molecules. The dye diffuses
from where it is more concentrated
to where it is less concentrated
(called diffusing down a concentration
gradient). This leads to a dynamic
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium
equilibrium: The solute molecules
continue to cross the membrane,
but at equal rates in both directions.

Figure 7.11 A
 • Substances diffuse down their concentration
gradient, the difference in concentration of a
substance from one area to another
(b)

Diffusion of two solutes. Solutions of

two different dyes are separated by a
membrane that is permeable to both.
Each dye diffuses down its own concen-
tration gradient. There will be a net
diffusion of the purple dye toward the
left, even though the total solute
concentration was initially greater on
the left side.

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Figure 7.11 B
 Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance

• Osmosis
– Is the movement of water across a semipermeable
membrane
– Is affected by the concentration gradient of
dissolved substances
Lower Higher
concentration concentration Same concentration
of solute (sugar) of sugar of sugar

Selectively
permeable mem- Water molecules
brane: sugar mole- cluster around
cules cannot pass sugar molecules
through pores, but
water molecules can
More free water Fewer free water
molecules (higher molecules (lower
concentration) concentration)

Osmosis

Water moves from an area of higher
Figure 7.12 free water concentration to an area
of lower free water concentration
 Water Balance of Cells Without Walls

• Tonicity
– Is the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or
lose water
– Has a great impact on cells without walls
• If a solution is isotonic
– The concentration of solutes is the same as it is
inside the cell
– There will be no net movement of water
• If a solution is hypertonic
– The concentration of solutes is greater than it is
inside the cell
– The cell will lose water
• If a solution is hypotonic
– The concentration of solutes is less than it is inside
the cell
– The cell will gain water
• Water balance in cells without walls
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution
(a)
Animal cell. An
animal cell fares best
in an isotonic environ- H2O H2O H2O
H2O
ment unless it has
special adaptations to
offset the osmotic
uptake or loss of
water.

Lysed Normal Shriveled

Figure 7.13
• Animals and other organisms without rigid cell
walls living in hypertonic or hypotonic
environments
– Must have special adaptations for osmoregulation

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

(a) Animal cell. An
animal cell fares best
in an isotonic environ- H2O H2O H2O H2O
ment unless it has
special adaptations to
offset the osmotic
uptake or loss of
water.

Figure 7.13 Lysed Normal Shriveled

 Water Balance of Cells with Walls
• Cell walls
– Help maintain water balance
• If a plant cell is turgid
– It is in a hypotonic environment
– It is very firm, a healthy state in most plants
• If a plant cell is flaccid
– It is in an isotonic environment.
– No net tendency for water to enter.
– Causing the plant to wilt.
• If a plant cell is plasmolyzed
– It is in an hypertonic environment.
– Will loose water to its surroundings and shrink.
– Lethal to plants.
• Water balance in cells with walls
(b)
Plant cell. Plant cells
are turgid (firm) and H2O H2O
H2O H2O
generally healthiest in
a hypotonic environ-
ment, where the
uptake of water is
eventually balanced
by the elastic wall
pushing back on the
cell.

Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed

Figure 7.13
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided
by Proteins

• In facilitated diffusion
– Transport proteins speed the movement of
molecules across the plasma membrane
 Types of Transport Proteins
• Channel proteins
– Provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to
cross the membrane

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Channel protein
Solute
CYTOPLASM

(a) A channel protein (purple) has a channel through which

water molecules or a specific solute can pass.

Figure 7.15
• Carrier proteins
– Undergo a subtle change in shape that translocates
the solute-binding site across the membrane

Solute
Carrier protein

(b) A carrier protein alternates between two conformations, moving a

solute across the membrane as the shape of the protein changes.
The protein can transport the solute in either direction, with the net
Figure 7.15 movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.
• Concept 7.4: Active transport uses
energy to move solutes against
their gradients
 The Need for Energy in Active
Transport
• Active transport
– Moves substances against their concentration
gradient
– Requires energy, usually supplied by ATP
• The sodium-potassium pump
– Is one type of active transport system
1 Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to [Na+] high
2 Na+ binding stimulates
the sodium-potassium pump. [K+] low phosphorylation by ATP.
Na+ Na+
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID Na+
Na+
Na+

[Na+] low ATP

Na+ P
[K+] high ADP
CYTOPLASM

Na+
Na+

Na+

3 K+ is released and Na+ K+ 4 Phosphorylation causes the

sites are receptive again; protein to change its conformation, expelling Na+ to
the cycle repeats. K+ P the outside.

K+

P
K+ Pi
K+
K+
5 Loss of the phosphate 6 Extracellular K+ binds to the
restores the protein’s
Figure 7.16
protein, triggering release of the
original conformation. Phosphate group.
• Review: Passive and active transport compared

Passive transport. Substances diffuse spontaneously

down their concentration gradients, crossing a Active transport. Some transport proteins act as
membrane with no expenditure of energy by the cell. pumps, moving substances across a membrane
The rate of diffusion can be greatly increased by transport against their concentration gradients. Energy for this
proteins in the membrane. work is usually supplied by ATP.

ATP
Diffusion. Hydrophobic Facilitated diffusion. Many hydrophilic
molecules and (at a slow substances diffuse through membranes
rate) very small uncharged with the assistance of transport
polar molecules can diffuse through
proteins,
the lipid bilayer. either channel or carrier proteins.
Figure 7.17
• Concept 7.5: Bulk transport across
the plasma membrane occurs by
exocytosis and endocytosis

• Large proteins
– Cross the membrane by different mechanisms
 Exocytosis
• In exocytosis
– Transport vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane,
fuse with it, and release their contents
 Endocytosis
• In endocytosis
– The cell takes in macromolecules by forming new
vesicles from the plasma membrane
• Three types of endocytosis
In phagocytosis, a cell
engulfs a particle by PHAGOCYTOSIS
Wrapping pseudopodia EXTRACELLULAR
CYTOPLASM 1 µm
around it and packaging FLUID
Pseudopodium
it within a membrane-
enclosed sac large Pseudopodium
enough to be classified of amoeba
as a vacuole. The
particle is digested after “Food” or
the vacuole fuses with a other particle Bacterium
lysosome containing
Food
hydrolytic enzymes.
vacuole Food vacuole

An amoeba engulfing a bacterium via

phagocytosis (TEM).
In pinocytosis, the cell
PINOCYTOSIS
“gulps” droplets of
extracellular fluid into tiny 0.5 µm
Plasma
vesicles. It is not the fluid
membrane Pinocytosis vesicles
itself that is needed by the
forming (arrows) in
cell, but the molecules
a cell lining a small
dissolved in the droplet.
blood vessel (TEM).
Because any and all
included solutes are taken
into the cell, pinocytosis
is nonspecific in the Vesicle
substances it transports.

Figure 7.20
Receptor-mediated endocytosis enables the RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific
substances, even though those substances Coat protein
may not be very concentrated in the Receptor
extracellular fluid. Embedded in the Coated
membrane are proteins with vesicle
specific receptor sites exposed to
the extracellular fluid. The receptor
proteins are usually already clustered
in regions of the membrane called coated
pits, which are lined on their cytoplasmic
side by a fuzzy layer of coat proteins. Coated
Extracellular substances (ligands) bind Ligand pit
to these receptors. When binding occurs,
the coated pit forms a vesicle containing the
ligand molecules. Notice that there are
relatively more bound molecules (purple) Coat A coated pit
inside the vesicle, other molecules protein and a coated
(green) are also present. After this ingested vesicle formed
material is liberated from the vesicle, the during
receptors are recycled to the plasma receptor-
membrane by the same vesicle. mediated
endocytosis
(TEMs).

Plasma
membrane
0.25 µm