Conservation

Floorings

m a y a n k d u b e y
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Rubber Tiles
i n t r o d u c t i o n :
Rubber is a polymer that has or appears to have elastic properties. It can have an
organic source such as a rubber tress or can be synthetically produced from
hydrocarbons. Rubber of both the types was used to produce rubber flooring,
interlocking tiles, rubber tiles and sheet rubber.
Noted for its sound deadening properties and resiliency, rubber flooring also provided a
hygienic and water resistant flooring surface.
Vulcanization was developed in 1839 by Charles Goodyear. Vulcanization was the curing
of rubber using heat and sulphur, which helped prevent the rubber from deteriorating in
heat or cold. The discovery of vulcanization made it possible to use rubber in a variety of
products.
Frank Furness was the first to patent interlocking rubber tiles for interior use in 1894.
The New York Belting and Packing Company claim they were the first to manufacture the
interlocking tiles. The first tiles were roughly 2 inches square and 3/8 inch thick. The
friction fit of the interlocking tabs held them in place. 7 years later, Goodyear was
producing its own version of the interlocking tile.
u s e s + i n s t a l l a t i o n :

Interlocking tiles were ideal for kitchens and boats because of their waterproof qualities. Rubber tiles were popular for automobile
showrooms, banks, libraries, and churches. Rubber was also used around electrical equipment because of its insulating abilities and in
hospitals for hygienic properties
Interlocking tile measured 2 inches overall and was usually assembled in a mosaic form with a variety of colours. The use of dovetail
connectors or male/female connectors made for easy installation. Tiles usually came in one of three shapes: square, triangle, or
rectangle.
Square tiles were normally found in 4, 6, 12, 18, and 24 inches while rectangles were 6 X 12, 9 X 18, or 12 X 24 inches. Custom sizes
could be cut and would likely cost more money. ¼ thicknesses were the most popular because anything more proved difficult to cut more
than 9 inch diameter.
Interlocking tiles made installation easier, requiring no mastic and little or no glue. Rubber tile installation was often compared to
linoleum installation. Rubber tiles could be installed on concrete or wood subfloors if they were smooth and clean.
In the 1930s, the introduction of felt to the
installation process made for more absorptive
flooring with less differential movement in the
rubber tile. First, the felt was applied to the
subfloor, usually with some type of adhesive.
Then, a rubber or adhesive cement was applied
to the felt, the tiles were laid on top, and a
roller of heavy steel or iron was rolled across
the top of the tile. The rolling began about half
an hour after the floor was laid and should have
lasted about 15 minutes for each section to
remove air bubbles. The floor was the left for
five days to allow the cement to cure and was
then gently washed or polished.
d e t e r i o r a t i o n :

• All rubber floors are susceptible to deterioration when exposed to heat,

light, abrasions, and chemical reactions. The use of sulphur during
vulcanization may continue to interact with the material long after it
leaves the factory. Sulphur can cause rubber to dry out or cause the
chemicals in rubber to move towards the surface (called a bloom).

• Oxidation increases brittleness, which results in a process called shelf

aging. Shelf aging is caused by lights, heat, or metal interactions.

• Chalking occurs when the rubber flooring is exposed to inorganic fillers.

This process will cause the rubber to deteriorate and become dull.

• Copper and fatty acids have been known to cause damage in rubber
flooring as does improper cleaning that has softened the rubber until it is
sticky. Rubber may also be affected by oils, solvents, and petroleum-
based products. These products will cause the floor to soften and often
results in staining.
c o n s e r v a t i o n :

• When beginning a conservation treatment, it is important to determine the polymeric composition and curing system used in
the creation of the rubber flooring. Laboratory testing is often helpful in determining various compounds but is destructive to
the material. Using a scanning electron microscope can x-ray a sample of rubber flooring even under a protective coating.

• Chemical solvents should be applied in small amounts to hidden areas and then wiped away quickly, as should any cleaning
solvent, to prevent damaging the rubber under the foreign substance being removed. Chemical solvents should be applied in
small amounts to hidden areas and then wiped away quickly, as should any cleaning solvent, to prevent damaging the rubber
under the foreign substance being removed.

• Frequently sweeping and occasional damp mopping is suggested. Ammonia can be used in a small dose with cold water but
should not floor the floor to avoid penetration of seams. Sponge mops are suggested to help control the flow of water. Red
and green tiles are likely to bleed when they first come in contact with water. Vegetable soap or Ivory soap can be used to
remove stubborn dirt; abrasive cleaners should be avoided because they can eat the cotton fibers and dull the finish.
• Turpentine and pine cleaners are likely to make the rubber sticky and can permanently damage the chemical composition of
the floor. Conservation is possible with protective agents (antigradents) or protective barrier coatings. Antigradents are
made of amines and phenols but is not a practical solution for architectural applications.

• Protective coatings of wax or polish are better applied in architectural applications. These protective barrier coatings can
reduce the oxygen diffusion in flooring and can serve as a barricade between the floor and oils and acids. Waxes and polishes
are the easiest solution to a dull or dry floor. Waxes and polishes may present certain problems such as solvent attacks.

• Waxes should be water-based emulsion floor polish because these can usually be applied without buffering. Hard paste wax
can be applied using a light buffering but only over a water-based emulsion polish. Paste wax may contain petroleum
distillates, which has been proven to damage rubber flooring, so a test area is highly recommended.

• Hot water should never be used as should modern acrylic floor finishes. The best way to approach historic rubber flooring
conservation is by treating the flooring in place. Rubber floors over time become brittle and may crack or break upon
removal.
r e p l a c e m e n t :

Because rubber floor tiles are still produced, deteriorated historic pieces may be replaced by a new piece that is close in colour
and size. Solid and marbleized tiles are still produced by several manufacturers. If the new tile piece is not the same thickness,
layers of subflooring can be added to make the floor level. Relocating interlocking tiles may be easy if they have not been glued
to the floor. Switching hidden pieces (under furniture or rugs) with damaged pieces from the same room is an easy solution.
Custom tiles can be created both in rubber or synthetic materials. Custom interlocking tiles can be made using a die-cut process
from existing square tiles. It may be possible to get replacement pieces that are the approximate colour or appearance of the
historic piece.
Terrazzo
i n t r o d u c t i o n :
Terrazzo is a nonresilient floor surface made of small pieces of marble or hard stones
embedded in a Portland cement matrix. When it is cured, it is ground and polished to a
smooth finish or left in a rusticated state. Terrazzo known for its ease of maintenance
and durability can be formed in attractive and colourful with the aid of divider strips.
Though it was introduced in the 1890s, it did not reach popularity until early 1920.
Terrazzo is still a competitive flooring material today thanks to the development of things
like epoxy cement.
Terrazzo is derived from mosaics that were applied to waters and floors for decorative
purposes. Mosaics were originally developed in Alexandria, Egypt and were traditionally
formed by hand-setting small pieces of ceramic or stone into a decorative pattern with a
mortar base.
Romans further developed this technique by labelling the mosaics either opus museum,
glass mosaics used for walls, or lithostrotum, which was used for flooring. Floor mosaics
were later broken into three subgroups
After Rome fell, the mosaic tradition carried on in the early Christian churches as well as
in Venice, where the techniques are still used heavily today.
u s e s + i n s t a l l a t i o n :

• In the United States, terrazzo became the flooring project of choice in the 1920s, replacing the more difficult to lay mosaics.
Terrazzo is smooth and can be made into a curvy line, which made it ideal during the Art Deco period. Using the unbounded
method meant more stability while the marble and pigmented cement meant for design opportunities for flooring.
• Technological advances with terrazzo made the material more economical and durable. Originally, terrazzo floors were laid in
one massive slab, which lead to cracking in large office towers. L. Del Turco and Brothers Company was the first to introduce
a method for subdividing the slab with brass divider strips. Before, slabs were subdivided using small mosaic tile. Brass,
copper, nickel silver, and zinc became some of the most popular strip metals used to prevent cracking.
• The machine made the process quicker, more precise, and a little less expensive. Before too long, terrazzo had become the
flooring of choice for public buildings and apartments and was explored for its industrial potential. This flooring style was
called mosaic-terrazzo until the early 1930s, when the name was shortened to terrazzo.
• It could be precast into several architectural uses including murals. Cover mouldings and wainscoting became some of the
more popular architectural uses for terrazzo. Terrazzo had become a common sight in schools, airports, and many other
public buildings.
Bonded systems are subdivided into four classes: bonded underbed,
monolithic, chemically bonded, and thin-set. For each, the topping is
applied and allowed to cure, then the surface is ground using machines.
The bonded underbed method uses a structural slab soaked in water.
Then, a slurry coat of Portland cement and water is applied and a
mortar underbed is poured over the slab. Dividing strips are inserted in
the underbed and followed by a layer of Portland cement over the top.
The top is cured and then ground and finished. Monolithic bonding
systems are made by pouring Portland cement terrazzo topping onto a
structural slab with no underbed. Divider strips can be used to separate
the terrazzo colours and provide control joints. This system is more
likely to crack. The chemical bonded system is similar to the monolithic
system except that a bonding agent is applied to the concrete before the
topping is applied. Unbonded installation is known as the sand cushion
method . The mortar underbed and the terrazzo topping are separated
from the slab with a bond-breaking film over a bed of sand. The mortar
underbed is usually reinforced with wire and at least 1 7/8 inches thick.
Any movement in the slab is absorbed by the sand bed. Expansion in the
underbed or topping is usually covered by the divider strips, which are
most effective in this system.
d e t e r i o r a t i o n :
• Cracking is likely to occur from movement of the structural system and can occur regardless of
installation. Differential settlement or expansion and contraction of the structural system are
also common causes of cracking in terrazzo flooring. Bonded and monolithic installations are
likely to show cracks regardless of the location of the divider strips and may need more frequent
repairs.
• Acids and caustic cleaners, as well as floor stripping material, are likely to cause pitting in
terrazzo floors. These materials may also cause the bonding agent to disintegrate as well as
some of the aggregate.
• Engine oils and transmission fluids may cause a ghost-like pattern if they are permitted to seep
into the floor. Ink, ketchup, mustard, and some waxes may also cause staining problems. Some of
the blue and red marbles or elastic polymer setting beds can be affected by ultraviolet light and
may prove inappropriate for outside applications.
• Terrazzo aggregates have a high abrasion resistance and low porosity. Abrasion is likely to wear
down terrazzo surfaces, especially in high-traffic areas like front entrances and steps by railings.
• Improper installation is likely to cause failure and is easily spotted immediately after the topping
has been polished. The floor should not be loaded before it has had time to completely cure.
Drying accelerants may help the floor dry quicker but is not ideal for the topping material as it is
likely to cause delamination.
c o n s e r v a t i o n :

• A visual inspection is the first step in assessing a terrazzo floor. The investigator should look for evidence or
structural movement. Maintenance history should be investigated and the assistance of an experienced terrazzo
floor installer may prove beneficial
• Destructive testing can show if the bonding agent is failing and structural engineers can establish the quality of
the subfloor. Structural engineers should be capable of telling if the subfloor is compatible with the terrazzo floor
and can perform impact and load testing. Core samples should be taken for laboratory analysis which will evaluate
the topping, mortar bed, and subflooring.
• Sweeping the floor, with a compound that does not contain oil or sand, is recommended for general maintenance
of portland cement-based terrazzo. Mopping can be done to remove dirt but should be done with a non-ionic
neutral detergent. All cleaning supplies should be cleaned and the floor permitted to dry before rinsing to avoid
dirt absorption.
• All purpose and harsh cleaners, soap, and waxes should be avoided. Also, acids and alkalis should be avoided.
• Roughly 70 percent of the marble chip is portland cement terrazzo is exposed at the surface. After polishing and
new installation, the cement binder, which is porous, may require a penetrating solvent-type sealer immediately.
Water-based sealers should be applied periodically to prolong hydration of the binder. Resinous epoxies do not
require this sealer; they require a surface sealer instead.
• Stains are common in terrazzo floors because their abrasion resistance makes them popular in high-traffic areas. The stain
must first be identified before treatment begins. The stain may be removable using a dissolving agents or absorbing the
material with a poultice. If the stain is not first identified, the treatment may actually cause the stain to set, permanently
damaging the portland cement pigment. Chemicals should be a last alternative when less aggressive methods prove
unsuccessful.

• Water based stains should be easily removed with water, while grease can be removed with a cotton cloth and a little soap
(being careful to blot and not rub). Inks have varied composition and therefore have a variety of removal methods. Writing ink
can usually be removed in a solution of sodium perborate in hot water.

• Structural systems under terrazzo floors should be stabilized before any repairs take place. Small damaged areas of terrazzo
can be repaired by removing damaged areas of the terrazzo topping and replacing the original void. A matrix patch of sorts
should be added to the subsurface, making sure that it matches the existing color, then the marble pieces are pressed into
the cement matrix. The piece should be grinded to a smooth finish after the patch has had time to cure.
r e p l a c e m e n t :

When large terrazzo squares require replacement, cutting out the deteriorated pieces may be required. The structural surface
should be examined to ensure compatibility with the replacement piece. It is suggested that replacing the entire area within a
divider strip should be done to create uniformity in the section. When replacing an entire floor, it is important to note the
location of the metal divider strips so that the design can be properly recreated. Original marble chips and binder should be
investigated to develop specifications for new pieces. Physical data can also be compared with original specifications. Marble
chips should match both the colour and grade of original mix and may prove extremely challenging. Combining mixtures to
achieve a similar colour or shape pattern is possible. The topping is then mixed and recorded for duplication in the installation.
Cracked flooring may need expansion joints to control the cracking. Installation type should depend on the structural subfloor
and the depth available for the floor. Unbonded floors of 2 ½ inches deep should offer the best result, followed by a bonded
installation. Terrazzo surfaces are unlikely to match the existing terrazzo unless the existing surface can be resurfaced and the
new material formulated to match. The National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association should be consulted for grinding, buffing, and
sealing practices.