Basic of Cartography-Pondi

Basics of Cartography
Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cartographic concepts
• Cartography defined
• The communication channel
–Why maps fail
• Objectives & limitations affecting design
• Cartographic design issues
• Abuse of GIS cartography

2
What is cartography?
Art Science Technology
Making maps Presentation
USE
Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved. UC2009 Tech Workshops
3
CARTOGRAPHIC BASICS
Maps perform two important functions:
 Storage medium for information that humanity needs
 Provides a picture of the world to help understand spatial

patterns, relationships, and environmental complexity
Maps tell us:
 Where is it?
 What is it?
 (often) When is it?
 What is nearby? How far away? In which direction? How
do I get there?
 What other things are there also?
 How might they be related?

CARTOGRAPHIC BASICS
Where am I? After James R. Smith, page 46

How far to my destination?
In what direction do I go?
How large?
What shape?

CARTOGRAPHIC BASICS
All maps have the same goal:
 Communicating spatial relationships

 Communicating the ‘form’ of the landscape
Basic characteristics of all maps:
 Location, Distance, Direction, Movement and Region

 Attribution
 Reduction of reality
 Scale
 Geometrical transformation/projection
 Abstractions of reality
 Symbolism
What is communication in cartography?
Reality Cartographer
The geographic
environment Compile Recognize
Select
Classify
Simplify
Symbolize
Map
Map
Read
Imagine
Analyze
Reality? Interpret
Map user
7
CARTOGRAPHIC BASICS
Classification of maps:
 Classed by Scale
Small scale
Medium scale
Large scale
 Classed by Function
General reference maps
Thematic/special purpose maps
Charts
 Classed by Subject Matter
Cadastral maps
Plans
Soil, vegetation, precipitation, etc.
The principal task of cartography is to communicate

environmental information. The task of the map designer is to enhance the
map user's ability to retrieve information.

CARTOGRAPHIC BASICS
Four main cartographic processes:
 Collecting and selecting data for mapping
 Manipulating and generalizing the data, designing and

constructing the map
 Reading or viewing the map
 Interpreting the information presented on the map
Skilled cartographers must be familiar with all mapping activities, including

geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, GIS.
Skilled cartographers must be familiar with the principals of human thought

and communication.
Skilled cartographers must be familiar with the disciplines associated with

the environmental features being mapped.

BASIC GEODESY
Cartographic use of sphere, ellipsoid, geoid:
 Authalic sphere used for small scale maps of countries,

continents, larger areas
 Ellipsoid used for large scale maps such as topographic

maps and nautical charts; GPS systems use ellipsoid
 Geoid used as reference surface for ground surveyed

horizontal and vertical positions; elevations determined
relative to mean sea level geoid

What is cartographic design?
Useful map
Complex task
(unlimited options)
Highly creative
mental activity
Think in
Use concepts of visual terms
communication
Beauty is NOT the MAIN objective

11
What are my cartographic objectives?
Highlight spatial relationships
Why? Illustrate analysis results
Map
objectives
Convey information
Easier comprehension of complex events
Fulfill communication objectives
How? Assign meaningful symbology

Design
objectives Fulfill map objectives
Ensure truthful depiction of reality

12
What are my communication objectives?
General map
Variety of information
Equal importance
Subtle symbology
Thematic map
Soils Population
Focused information
Importance can vary
Symbols can dominate Qualitative Quantitative

13
Which projection should I use?
• More than 3000

• No perfect projection
• All have distortions
Cylindrical
Shape
Area
Conical
Distance
Direction Azimuthal

14
How much detail should I include?
Omit? Aggregate? Collapse?
Simplify? Displace? Typify?
C5 E5
C2 C
E
C3 E1
B1 B4 B
Refine? Classify? Exaggerate?

15
Types of Maps
• General-Purpose Maps
• Thematic Maps

General Purpose Maps
• Also called Reference Maps

• Emphasis on location
• All data is at the same level of
importance
• Examples of General Purpose Maps
– Topographic, Street, Atlas

Directions
• Directions tell which way to go.

Compass Rose
• A compass rose is a symbol on a map which indicates the

directions for a map.

Cardinal Directions
• North
• South
• East
• West

Intermediate directions
• Northeast
• Southeast
• Northwest
• Southwest

Latitude Lines
• These lines circle the globe running east to west

Longitude Lines or meridians
• Circle the globe running North to South

Equator- latitude
Prime Meridian - longitude

Equator
• The equator is a zero degree line of latitude that separates the

Northern hemisphere from the Southern Hemisphere.

Prime Meridian
• The prime meridian is the zero degree line of longitude that

separates the eastern and western hemisphere.

Globe
• A model of the earth

Map

Topographic Map

Street Map

Atlas Map

Thematic Maps
• Special-purpose, Single topic, and
Statistical maps
• Two or more levels of importance
• Data over a base map
• Examples of Thematic Maps
– Choropleth, dot, graduated symbol,
isoline, flow, and value-by-area
maps.
Choropleth Map

Dot Maps

Graduated Symbol Maps

Isoline Maps

Flow Maps

Two-Way Flow Maps

Value-by-Area Maps

The Map Design Process
• Choosing a Map Size
• Elements of a map composition
• The Design Filter
• Planar Organization of Visual
Elements

Choosing a Map Size
First ask yourself these questions:
• What does the end user want or need?

• Can you physically produce the desired size?
(i.e. output limitations?)
• Are there publishing, framing, or laminating
restrictions or limitations?
• Will the data be legible or useful at the
desired size?

Map Size Rule of Thumb
If left to you to
determine map size,
produce it at the
smallest size feasible.

Elements of a Map
Composition
Title and Mapped and
Subtitle Unmapped Areas
Legend Borders and Neatlines
Scale Bar Graticules and Grids
Inset Map Map Symbols
Credit Note Place Names and
Date Labeling
Logo
North Arrow
Title - Usually draws attention
by virtue of its dominant size;
serves to focus attention on the
primary content of the map; may
be omitted where captions are
provided but are not part of the
map itself.

Legend - The principal symbol-
referent description on the map;
subordinate to the title, but a key
element in map reading; serves to
describe all unknown symbols used.

Map Scale - Usually included on a
thematic map; it provides the
reader with important information
regarding linear relations on the
map; can be graphic, verbal, or
expressed as an RF.

Map Scale Rule of Thumb
If at all possible,
SCALE YOUR MAP !!!

A GIS makes it easy.

Map Scale - Usually included on a
thematic map; it provides the
reader with important information
regarding linear relations on the
map; can be graphic, verbal, or
expressed as an RF.

Inset Map or Location Diagram
– This informs the map user of the
context of the map, i.e. the big
picture. This will keep the user
from having to guess the location
of the map.

Informational or Credit Note -
Can Include the map’s data source,
an indication of their reliability,
dates, and other explanatory
material.

Date – Use if the time of a map’s
publication is a factor. This may
also work well as part of the Sub-
title.

Company Identifier or Logo –
Take credit where credit’s due.
Make sure to use a high quality
logo, especially for partnering
agencies.

Feature Content
“Too many features are too much,
too little features ain’t enough”
Rules of Thumb
• Find a balance that portrays enough information without
making the map appear cluttered or busy.
• Show the necessary features along with enough supporting
features for clarity.

Elements of a Map
Composition
Map Symbols - Wide variety of forms
and functions; the most important
elements of the map, along with the
geographical areas rendered, designer
has little control over the their location
because geography must be accurate.
Place names and labeling - The chief

means of communicating with maps;
serve to orient the reader on the map
and provide important information
Symbols
• Symbols are pictures that represent something.

Key or legend
• A key or legend is an area on the map that shows us what each

symbol represents.

Scale
• Scale is the section of the map that shows how much smaller the
map is compared to the real area it represents.

Map Symbols
• Symbols represent objects that can not be depicted in their
true shape or size.

Map Symbols
• Varying sizes and colors help to distinguish the qualitative or
quantitative differences among like symbols.

Text Styles Rules of Thumb
• Do not use too many typefaces on a
map.
• Avoid ornate text styles (difficult to read).
• Don’t use too thin of text because it
may not reproduce well.
• Use different type sizes to show
varying levels of importance of
features, but no more than 4 to 6
different sizes per map.
Elements of a Map
Composition
Mapped and Unmapped Areas - Objects, land, water,
and other geographical features important to the purpose of the map; make the
composition a map rather than simply a chart or diagram.
Graticules and Grids - Often omitted from thematic maps today;

should be included if their locational information is crucial to the map’s purpose;
usually treated as background or secondary information. Grids show the same
information, but display it across the body of the map and not just along the
neatline.

Elements of a Map
Composition
Borders and Neatlines - Both
optional; borders can serve to restrain eye movement;
neatlines are finer lines than borders, drawn inside them
and often rendered as part of the graticule; used mostly
for decoration.

Iowa
N E B R A S K A

Break here for
class to make a
map

The Design Filter

Planar Organization of the Visual
Elements
• Balance
• Focus of Attention
• Internal Organization –
“Intraparallelism”
• Figure and Ground Organization
• Contrast and Design
• Line Contrast

Balance
The two The designer
centers of Optical Center should
an image arrange the
space. map’s
elements
around the
natural
(optical)
center, rather
Geometric center
than the
Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved. geometric
Visual Balance
• Visual balance results from two major factors:
weight and direction.
• Visual weight depends on location.
• Elements at the center of a composition pull
less weight than those lying of the tracks of the
structural net.
• An object in the upper part of a composition is
heavier than one in the lower part.
• Objects on the right of a composition appear
heavier than those on the left.
• The weight of an object increases in proportion
to its distance from the center of the
composition.
Visual Balance

Focus of Attention
• Readers eye normally follows a path
from upper left through the optical
center to lower right.
• Point of greatest natural emphasis is
where a line of space division
intersects either the focus or field
circles of attention.

Focus of Attention

Internal Organization
• “Intraparallelism”
• Technique for giving structure to the
graphic elements at the planar level.
• Reduces tension in perception.


Figure & Ground Organization
• Most important perceptual tendency to
cartography.
• Figures become the object of attention
in perception, standing out from the
background.
• Objects that are intellectually
important to a map should be rendered
so as to make them appear as figures.


Contrast & Design
• Contrast is fundamental in developing
Figure - Ground.
• Visual contrast provides the ability of
the eye to discern differences.
• Map elements that have little contrast
are easily lost in the total visual
package.
• Contrast must be a major goal

of the designer.
Line Contrast

Texture Contrast

Variation of Detail

Value Contrast

Value Contrast

Value Contrast

Visual Hierarchy
• The visual hierarchy is the intellectual
plan for the map and the eventual
graphic solution that satisfies the plan.
• Objects that are important
intellectually are rendered so that they
are visually dominant within the map
frame.

Typographics
Making the Map Readable through
Intelligent Use of Typographics.
Map lettering is an integral part of the

total design effort and should not be
relegated to a minor role. Lettering on
the map functions to bring the
cartographer and map reader closer
together and makes communication
possible.
Type Elements

Selecting Type
• The legibility of individual letters is of
paramount importance, especially in
smaller type sizes. Choose a typeface
in which there is little chance of
confusion between c and e or i and j.
• Select a typeface with a relatively large
x-height relative to lettering width.
• Avoid extremely bold forms.

Selecting Type
Do not use decorative typefaces on the
map; they are difficult to read.

Type Size
• The system of specifying type size in the
United States and Britain is based on division
of the inch into 72 parts called points. A point
equals .0138 in (.351 mm). Thus 72 points
equals .9962 inches.
• Specify a type size that is large enough to be
easily read.
• Professional cartographers rarely use type
smaller than 4 or 5 points usually setting a
lower limit of 6.

Letter Spacing

Word Spacing

Lettering
Four major goals
• Legibility
• Harmony
• Suitability of reproduction
• Economy and ease of execution

Lettering
The Use of CAPITALS and
lowercase
General Rule: Inside the feature, capitals;

outside, lower case with initial capital.
Labeling Point Features

Labeling Point Features

Labeling Linear Features
• General rule is that labels should be
set solid and repeated as many times
along the feature as necessary to
facilitate identification.
• Ideal location of a label for a linear
feature is above it, along a horizontal
stretch if possible.
• Labels for rivers should slant in the
direction of the river’s flow (assuming
the label is italic, which is preferred.)
Labeling Linear Features

Labeling Areal Features
• Curved lines of letters should be gentle
and smooth , and the curve should be
constant for the entire word
• Do not hyphenate names and labels.
• If a line of lettering is not horizontal,
make certain it deviates significantly
from the horizontal so that its
placement will not look like a mistake.

Labeling Areal Features
• Do not locate names and labels in a
way that the beginning and ending
letters are too close to the feature’s
borders.
• Choose a plan for lettering placement
of the entire map in accordance with
the normal left-to-right reading pattern.
• Never position names so that parts of
them are upside down.
Placement of Titles & Legends

Placement of Titles & Legends

The Road Ahead
• A Great
Responsibility…

What symbols should I use?
Color
Qualitative Shape
Texture / Pattern
Graytone value
Quantitative
Size

11
What colors should I use?
Dimensions
• Connotations
R G B Y
• Conventions
Hue
• Preferences
• For screen or paper 20 30 50 85%
Value
100 70 40 10%
Saturation

11
What are the eye limitations?
12 colors Maximum 7- 8 shades

11
What about the color impaired?
Normal eye
Red defective
Green defective
Blue defective
• Avoid pure green / red

• Vary shapes, textures
• Use brightness contrast (not more colors)

11
Can I use special effects?
Texture
vibration
Optical
illusions
Orientation exerts direction

11
When do I use patterns?
• For areas
• Qualitative symbology
• Consider effects of reduction

11
How legible are my symbols?
• Size of symbols
• Perfect vision? 2.9mm (.11 in)
Eye 2’
5m (16.4 ft)

11
Are there any specifications?
Perception
Legibility of smallest detail
Points
Lines (thickness) 0.5 mm 0.5 mm
0.1 mm
0.4 mm 0.5 mm
Full Hollow
Separation
Distinction between adjacent details > 0.2 mm
Differentiation
Smallest difference between nearly same size symbols

11
How do I create visual contrast / hierarchy?
• Differentiation
• Relative importance

11
How do I represent names on my map?
Qualitative
River
Tigris Baghdad
Color Style Form RIVER
Orlando Basra
River
Quantitative
River
Size
San Diego Form RIVER Value
Redlands
Color
Tigris
Redlands San Diego Orlando
River
• Legibility issues
– Text color vs background color
– Uppercase vs lowercase
– No fancy fonts
12
How do I place names at POINTS?
• Readability issues
Makramville
1 Jackville 2
Lauraville
3 Marinaville 4
Majdville
5 6
Shirleyville

12
How do I place names along LINES?
• Ambiguity issues

12
How do I label contours?
• Faster reading issues

12
What angles are suitable for names?
• Convenience issues
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text

12
What map elements do I place in my map?
Title
Date of data
Map body
Legend North arrow
Scale bar Designed by Makram 2009
Author Date of map

Projection, sources?

12
What is visual balance?
• Layout of map elements

• Visual center Visual
(5%) h
h x
Geometric
• Visual weight
– Size, value, brilliance, close to edge
• What about gaps?

12
Visual balance – Test 1
A B C

12
A B

12
A B
12
What factors control my design?
Objective Map form
Audience Easy / Complex
Reality Authenticity
Generalization
Quantity of information
Scale
Technical limits Quality
Conditions of use Symbol size, color

13
Is North correct everywhere?
Mollweide projection

13
What about my scale?
Are these dog houses? Must be visually

easy to read
0 3 ft
?
Correct? Easy to use?

13
Do I accept software defaults?
Decimals?
Necessary?

13
What about maps for screen displays?
• Cartography vs performance
• Avoid
–Advanced Drawing Options in ArcMap
–Multiple layer symbols
–Picture symbols
–Dash line patterns, splining, and offsets
–Dot density fills
–Text fill patterns
–Complex SQL statements for text

13
ALWAYS
THINK of
?
?
? the USER
13
Technology trends in GIS—cartography
www.esri.com/technology_trends/cartography
Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved. UC2009 Tech Workshops 136
GIS for map, chart, and data production
www.esri.com/industries/map-chart-dataproduction/index.html
Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved. UC2009 Tech Workshops 137
The drivers
• New technologies, new data

–geographic information systems (GIS)
–remote sensing
–positioning (GPS)
–using location to integrate
–providing spatial context
–delivery mechanisms
• Applications of science in policy, decision
making, design

Spatial thinking
•Larger than GIS

–compare GIScience
•What every Google Earth user needs to
know
•One of Gardner’s seven types of
intelligence

What is spatial thinking?
“Three aspects of spatial ability:

• Spatial knowledge
– symmetry, orientation, scale, distance
decay, etc.
• Spatial ways of thinking and acting
– using diagramming or graphing, recognizing
patterns in data, change over space from
change over time, etc.
• Spatial capabilities
– ability to use tools and technologies such
as spreadsheet, graphical, statistical, and
GIS software to analyze spatial data”
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11019.html
Location
The idea of location is the “entrance ticket”

to a geographic inquiry.
- Where is it ?
- Why is it there ?
- Why is that important ?
Location
Place Movement
The conditions The connections

“right there” a location has
at a location with other places

Location
Spatial
Place ThinkingMovement
How the brain organizes

information about locations,
their conditions, and connections.

Thinking about space
•Wayfinding skills
–mental maps
•Three levels of knowledge
–landmark
–route
–survey

Spatial Visualization
•Spatial representation of geographic

objects in the form of maps / images
etc.,

Las Vegas, 1972 - infrared
LANDSAT

Las Vegas, 1992 - infrared
LANDSAT

the natural,
social world
planning,
decision nomothetic
making science
abstracted
knowledge


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Basics of Cartography

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Art Science Technology

Making maps Presentation

 Provides a picture of the world to help understand spatial

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Where am I? After James R. Smith, page 46

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

All maps have the same goal:

 Communicating spatial relationships

Basic characteristics of all maps:

 Location, Distance, Direction, Movement and Region

The principal task of cartography is to communicate

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Collecting and selecting data for mapping

 Manipulating and generalizing the data, designing and

 Reading or viewing the map

 Interpreting the information presented on the map

Skilled cartographers must be familiar with all mapping activities, including

Skilled cartographers must be familiar with the principals of human thought

Skilled cartographers must be familiar with the disciplines associated with

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cartographic use of sphere, ellipsoid, geoid:

 Authalic sphere used for small scale maps of countries,

 Ellipsoid used for large scale maps such as topographic

 Geoid used as reference surface for ground surveyed

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Beauty is NOT the MAIN objective

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Easier comprehension of complex events

Fulfill communication objectives

How? Assign meaningful symbology

Ensure truthful depiction of reality

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• More than 3000

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Omit? Aggregate? Collapse?

Simplify? Displace? Typify?

Refine? Classify? Exaggerate?

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Also called Reference Maps

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Directions tell which way to go.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• A compass rose is a symbol on a map which indicates the

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• These lines circle the globe running east to west

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Circle the globe running North to South

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• The equator is a zero degree line of latitude that separates the

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• The prime meridian is the zero degree line of longitude that

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

• A model of the earth

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1993-2009 ESRI, Inc. All rights reserved.