What is Software Design?

 Introduction
 Software design consists of two components, modular design and
packaging.
 Modular design is the decomposition of a program into

modules.
 A module is a group of executable instructions with a single

point of entry and a single point of exit.

 Packaging is the assembly of data, process, interface, and

geography design specifications for each module.

 Structured Design

 Introduction
 Structured design was developed by Ed Yourdon and Larry
Constantine.
 This technique deals with the size and complexity of a program

by breaking up a the program into a hierarchy of modules that

result in a computer program that is easier to implement and
maintain.
 INFORMATION SYSTEMS FRAMEWORK

FOCUS ON FOCUS ON FOCUS ON FOCUS ON

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
DATA PROCESSES INTERFACES GEOGRAPHY

SYSTEM
OWNERS

(scope)

Business Processes
rej ected order

credit Check
Customers
credit

S customer
SYSTEM number order with
approved order

Y valid products

USERS
S order Validate
customer
valid order Validate
products Orders

T approved
(requirements) order without prices order
E valid
customer
picking
M Products
quantity
in stock
Release
order
ticket

A Chapters 5, 7
N
A
L Application Schema
Y Orde r

S
Processing
Program

T Initia tion Proce ss Shutdown

S SYSTEM Routine an Orde r Routine

DESIGNERS Ge t an Va lidate File an

Order an Orde r Order

(facilitation) (specification) Chec k

Customer
Credit
Chec k
Product
Data
Check
Cre dit
Data
Re lease
an
Order

Customers Orders
Products

Chapters 11, 16

SYSTEM
BUILDERS

(components)

Interface
Software Technology
(and Hardware)
Technology
 Structured Design

 Structure Charts
 The primary tool used in structured design is the structure chart.
 Structure charts are used to graphically depict a modular

design of a program.
• Specifically, they show how the program has been partitioned into
smaller more manageable modules, the hierarchy and organization
of those modules, and the communication interfaces between
modules.
• Structure charts, however, do not show the internal procedures
performed by the module or the internal data used by the module.
 Structured Design

 Structure Charts
 Structure chart modules are depicted by named rectangles.
 Structure chart modules are presumed to execute in a top-to-
bottom, left-to-right sequence.
 An arc shaped arrow located across a line (representing a module
call) means that the module makes iterative calls.
 A diamond symbol located at the bottom of a module means that
the module calls one and only one of the other lower modules that
are connected to the diamond.
 Program modules communicate with each other through passing of
data.
 Structured Design

 Structure Charts
 Programs may also communicate with each other through passing
of messages or control parameters, called flags.
 Library modules are depicted on a structure chart as a rectangle
containing an vertical line on each side.
 1 SYSTEM
MODULE

DATA A
2
3 DATA B

5
MODULE MODULE
A B

6 FLAG A 4
4 FLAG B
FLAG B

5 DATA A DATA B DATA C

6 DATA B
DATA D
AND C/D

MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE

C D E F G

DATA B

7
LIBRARY
MODULE
A
 Structured Design

 Data Flow Diagrams of Programs

 Structured design requires that data flow diagrams (DFDs) first be
drawn for the program.
 Processes appearing on the logical, elementary DFDs may represent
modules on a structure chart.
 Logical DFDs need to be revised to show more detail in order to be
used by programmers
 The following revisions may be necessary:
 Processes appearing on the DFD should do one function.

 Processes need to be added to handle data access and maintenance.

 DFDs must be revised to include editing and error handling

processes, and processes to implement internal controls.

D DATA STORE A DATA A P
FINAL TOTALS BOUNDARY
PROCESS A OF DATA A & C B
P SUM OF DATA A
(DO NOT
BOUNDARY AND DATA C
PROCESS EXPAND)
A DATA C WITH MANY
INPUTS &
OUTPUTS

P
RELEASED DATA D
SCREENED
D DATA STORE B DATA B PROCESS B
DATA B (DO NOT REVISED XYZ STATUS
EXPAND)

D DATA STORE C

EXPANDED (OR
REPLACED BY)

D DATA STORE A DATA A

P
P FINAL TOTALS BOUNDARY
SUM OF DATA A PROCESS A OF DATA A & C B
NEW
PROCESS AND DATA C
BOUNDARY DATA C
A A

P P RELEASED DATA D
SCREENED
DATA B
NEW PROCESS B
PROCESS
REVISED XYZ STATUS
DATA B B
D DATA STORE B
D DATA STORE C
D DATA STORE A
A DETAILS P
NEW B DETAILS D DATA STORE B
PROCESS X
UPDATED C DETAILS D DATA STORE C

BOUNDARY B DETAILS DELETED D DETAILS D DATA STORE D

A

NEW B DETAILS P
TO BE ADDED
ADD NEW B DETAILS D DATA STORE B
P NEW B
A DETAILS DETAILS
READ
A DETAILS
P

C DETAILS TO UPDATE UPDATED C DETAILS D DATA STORE C

P C DETAILS
D DATA STORE A BE UPDATED
A DETAILS FOR
PROCESSING PROCESS X

P
BOUNDARY B DETAILS
A DELETE DELETED D DETAILS D DATA STORE D
D DETAILS D DETAILS
TO BE DELETED
 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 One approach used to derive a program structure chart from
program DFD is transform analysis.
 Transform analysis is an examination of the DFD to divide

the processes into those that perform input and editing, those
that do processing or data transformation (e.g., calculations),
and those that do output.
• The portion consisting of processes that perform input and editing
is called the afferent.
• The portion consisting of processes that do actual processing or
transformations of data is called the central transform.
• The portion consisting of processes that do output is called the
efferent.
 Central
BOUNDARY
A A
P Transform P

L BOUNDARY
INPUT OUTPUT B
FUNCTION FUNCTION
A A

Afferent C
P
K

D DATA STORE B
INPUT
FUNCTION
E
P Efferent
B OUTPUT
FUNCTION
B

P P

B INPUT F J
TRANSFORM
FUNCTION FUNCTION
D DATA STORE E
C A

H
M
D DATA STORE D

P
P P

D G I OUTPUT
INPUT TRANSFORM
FUNCTION FUNCTION B FUNCTION
D C
 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 The strategy for identifying the afferent, central transform, and
efferent portions of a begins by first tracing the sequence of
processing for each input.
 There may be several sequences of processing.

 A sequence of processing for a given input may actually split

to follow different paths.

 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 Once sequence paths have been identified, each sequence path is
examined to identify process along that path that are afferent
processes.
 The steps are as follows:

• Step 1 - Beginning with the input data flow, the data flow is traced
through the sequence until it reaches a process that does processing
(transformation of data) or an output function.
• Step 2 - Beginning with an output data flow from a path, the data
flow is traced backwards through connected processes until a
transformation processes is reached (or a data flow is encountered
that first represents output).
• Step 3 - All other processes are then considered to be part of the
central transform!
 P P
BOUNDARY
A A BOUNDARY
INPUT OUTPUT L
B
FUNCTION FUNCTION
A A
START FOR
TRACING
INPUT A K
C P

INPUT E
FUNCTION P
D DATA STORE B OUTPUT FINISH POINTS
B
FUNCTION FOR TRACING
B
INPUTS A & B
P P

B INPUT F TRANSFORM J
FUNCTION FUNCTION
START FOR C A D DATA STORE E

TRACING
INPUT B
H
M
D DATA STORE D

P P P

D INPUT G TRANSFORM I OUTPUT

FUNCTION FUNCTION B FUNCTION
D C
START FOR FINISH POINT
TRACING FOR TRACING
INPUT D INPUT D
 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 Once the DFD has been partitioned, a structure chart can be created that
communicates the modular design of the program.
 Step 1 - Create a process that will serve as a “commander and chief”

of all other modules.

• This module manages or coordinates the execution of the other program
modules.
 Step 2 - The last process encountered in a path that identifies
afferent processes becomes a second-level module on the structure
charts.
 Step 3 - Beneath that module should be a module that corresponds to

its preceding process on the DFD.

 This would continue until all afferent processes in the sequence path

are included on the structure chart.

 BOSS

F G

INPUT INPUT INPUT

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION
B C D

INPUT
FUNCTION
A
 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 Step 4 - If there is only one transformation process, it should
appear as a single module directly beneath the boss module.
• Otherwise, a coordinating module for the transformation processes
should be created and located directly above the transformation
process..
 Step 5 - A module per transformation process on the DFD
should be located directly beneath the controller module.
 BOSS

F G
E, F, & G
J&I

INPUT INPUT INPUT CENTRAL

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION TRANSFORM
B C D CONTROLLER

C E&F
J I
G&H

INPUT TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION
A A B
 Structured Design

 Transform Analysis
 Step 6 - The last process encountered in a path that identifies
efferent processes becomes a second-level module on the
structure chart.
 Step 7 - Beneath the module (in step 6) should be a module

that corresponds to the succeeding process appearing on the

sequence path.
• Likewise any process immediately following that process would
appear as a module beneath it on the structure chart.
 BOSS

E
J
F G
E, F, & G
J&I I

INPUT INPUT INPUT CENTRAL OUTPUT OUTPUT

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION TRANSFORM FUNCTION FUNCTION
B C D CONTROLLER C B

C E&F K
J I
G&H

INPUT TRANSFORM TRANSFORM OUTPUT

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION
A A B A
 MEMBER P
D MEMBER ORDER
DETAILS READ D ACTIVITY REPORT FILE
MEMBER MEMBER
DETAILS ORDER
MEMBER
ORDER
ACTIVITY
P
D MEMBER ORDER MEMBER
ORDER P
READ
MEMBER DETAILS
WRITE
REPORT
ACTIVITY
DETAILS
P
MEMBER DETAILS

GET FORMATED
PRODUCT ORDER ACTIVITY
D PRODUCT ON AN DETAILS
ON AN DETAILS
ORDER
ORDER
P DETAILS
PRODUCT P
CUSTOMER
ON AN ORDER FORMAT
AND ORDER
DETAILS READ MEMBER
DETAILS
PRODUCT ACTIVITY
CONTAINED DETAILS
ON ORDER P UNFORMATTED
ACTIVITY
CALCULATE DETAILS
ORDER
VOLUMES
 MAINTAIN
MEMBER

CUSTOMER
AND ORDER
DETAILS UNFORMATED FORMATED
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
DETAILS DETAILS
CUSTOMER
AND ORDER FORMATED
DETAILS UNFORMATED ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY DETAILS
DETAILS

FORMAT WRITE
GET CALCULATE
MEMBER REPORT
ORDER ORDER
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
DETAILS VOLUMES
DETAILS DETAILS

MEMBER
DETAILS

PRODUCT
MEMBER ON AN
MEMBER ORDER ORDER
NUMBER DETAILS ORDER
DETAILS
NUMBER

READ
READ
READ PRODUCT
MEMBER
MEMBER CONTAINED
ORDER
ON ORDER
 Structured Design

 Transaction Analysis
 An alternative structured design strategy for developing structure
charts is called transaction analysis.
 Transaction analysis is the examination of the DFD to

identify processes that represent transaction centers.

• A transaction center is a process that does not do actual
transformation upon the incoming data (data flow); rather, it
serves to route the data to two or more processes.
– You can think of a transaction center as a traffic cop that
directs traffic flow.
– Such processes are usually easy to recognize on a DFD,
because they usually appear as a process containing a single
incoming data flow to two or more other processes.
BOUNDARY
A

TRANSACTION BOUNDARY
B

P P

INPUT PROCESS
FUNCTION TRANSACTION
A TYPE A TYPE A
RESULT
TRANSACTION RESULT
VALID
TRANSACTION TYPE A

P P
TYPE B
TRANSACTION PROCESS RESULT DISPLAY
P
TYPE B TRANSACTION RESULT
TYPE B
TRANSACTION
CENTER
A
TYPE C
TRANSACTION RESULT
TYPE C P

PROCESS
TRANSACTION
TYPE C
 BOSS

TRANSACTION
TYPE A, B, OR TYPE A, B, OR
VALID
C RESULT C RESULT
TRANSACTION

INPUT TRANSACTION DISPLAY

FUNCTION CENTER RESULT
A

TYPE A TYPE C
RESULT RESULT

TRANSACTION TRANSACTION TYPE B

TRANSACTION
TYPE A TYPE B RESULT
TYPE C

PROCESS PROCESS PROCESS

TRANSACTION TRANSACTION TRANSACTION
TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C
 Structured Design

 Transaction Analysis
 The primary difference between transaction analysis and transform
analysis is that transaction analysis recognizes that modules can be
organized around the transaction center rather than a transform
center.
 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Coupling:
 In structured design, the decomposition of a program in

manageable modules should be done in such a way that the

modules are independent as possible from one another.
 In structured design programs appearing on a structure chart

are evaluated relative to their degree coupling.

 Coupling refers to the level of dependency that exists between

modules.
 Loosely coupled modules are less likely to be dependent on

one another.
 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Coupling:
 Types of coupling: (from best to worst)

• Data coupling — two modules are said to be data coupled if their

dependency is based on the fact that they communicate by passing
of data.
• Stamp coupling — two modules are said to be stamp coupled if
their communication of data is in the form of an entire data
structure or record.
• Control coupling — two modules are said to be control coupled if
their dependency is based on the fact that they communicate by
passing of control information or flags.
• Common coupling — modules are said to be common coupled if
they refer to the same global data area.
 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Coupling:
 Types of coupling: (continued)

• Content coupling — two modules are said to be content coupled

(also referred to as hybrid coupled) when one module actually
modifies the procedural contents of another module.
 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Cohesion:
 Cohesion refers to the degree to which a module's instructions

are functionally related.

 Highly cohesive modules contain instructions that collectively

work together to solve a specific task.

 The goal is to ensure that modules exhibit a high degree of

cohesiveness.
 Programs that are implemented with highly cohesive modules

tend to be easier to understand, modify, and maintain.

 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Cohesion:
 There are seven types or levels of cohesion and they are as follows:

(from most desirable to least desirable)

• Functional cohesion — are modules whose instruction are related
because they collectively work together to accomplish a single well-
define function.
• Sequential cohesion — are modules whose instructions are related
because the output data from one instruction is used as input data to the
next instruction.
• Communicational cohesion — are modules whose instructions
accomplish tasks that utilize the same piece(s) of data.
• Procedural cohesion — are modules whose instructions accomplish
different tasks, yet have been combined because there is a specific order
in which the tasks are to be completed.
 Structured Design

 Structure Chart Quality Assurance Checks

 Cohesion:
 There are seven types or levels of cohesion and they are as

follows: (continued)
• Temporal cohesion — are modules whose instructions appear to
have been grouped together into a module because of “time”.
• Logical cohesion — are modules that contain instructions that
appear to be related because they fall into the same logical class of
functions.
• Coincidental cohesion — are modules that contain instructions
that have little or no relationship to one another.
 Packaging Program Specifications

 Introduction
 As an systems analyst, you are responsible for packaging that set
of design documentation into a format suitable for the
programmer.
 This package is called a technical design statement.

 The technical design statement should include all data, process,

interface, and geography building block specifications

developed by the designer.
 INFORMATION SYSTEMS FRAMEWORK

FOCUS ON FOCUS ON FOCUS ON FOCUS ON

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
DATA PROCESSES INTERFACES GEOGRAPHY

SYSTEM
OWNERS

(scope)

S
SYSTEM
Y
USERS
S
T
(requirements)
E
M

A
N
A
L Database Scehma Application Schema Interface Schema Network Schema
Y Orde r Custom er
New Custom er

S
Proc essing Form
Program
PRO DUCT
CUST O MER p ro d u ct_n o [Alp h a(10)] INDEX
Logon Order Accepted

T cu sto mer_n o [Al p h a (10)] INDEX

p ro d u ct_n ame [Alp h a(32)] Initiation Process Shutdown
Change
of
Com m unications
Contr oller
S t. Louis
cu sto mer_n ame [Al p h a(32)] Mainfr am e

S SYSTEM u n it_o f_measu re [Al p h a(2)]

cu sto mer_ratin g [Alp h a(1)] INDEX
u n it_p ri ce [Real(3, 2)]
Routine a n Orde r Routine
New Or der Address

b alan ce_d u e [Real(5, 2)] NT Ser ver LA

DESIGNERS q u an tity_availab le [I n teg er(4)]
Get a n Vali date File an Or der Help Complete Order Form First Order
Orde r a n Orde r Orde r P BX NT Ser ver NY
E thernet LAN/NT
Request
Request Order Help
P roduct Ether net LAN /NT

(facilitation) (specification) O RDER O RDER_PRO DUCT

Chec k
Customer
Check
Product
Check
Credit
Rele as e
an
Lookup

O RDER.o rd er_n o Credit Data Data Orde r

Help +
o rd er_n o [Alp h a(12)] INDEX Request Pr oduct Lookup Help
o rd er_d ate [Date(mmd d yyyy) PRO DUCT.p ro d u ct_n o Indy AIX Ser ver Client PC Client P C

CUST O M ER.cu sto mer_n o q u an tity_o rd ered [In teg er(2) Client PC Client P C
Product Enter net LAN AIX/Lan
Custome rs Products Orde rs Product Lookup Help Com plete
Lookup Manager

Chapter 12 Chapters 11, 16 Chapters 11, 13, 14, 15 Chapter 11

SYSTEM
BUILDERS

(components)