ELCIAN1

Lecture 09-10 – Capacitors and

Inductors
Elmer R. Magsino, MS EE

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Outline
 Capacitors
 Definition of Capacitance
 Charging and Discharging Action, Lumped Capacitance
 Voltage, Charge, and Current of a Capacitor
 Time Constant of an RC Circuit
 Energy Storage in a Capacitor
 Capacitors in Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel
 Inductors
 Definition of Inductance, Mutual Inductance
 Charging and Discharging Action, Lumped Inductance
 Voltage, Charge and Current of an Inductor
 Time Constant of an RL Circuit
 Energy Storage in an Inductor
 Inductors in Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel
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 Capacitor
 The capacitor is a circuit element that consists
of two conducting surfaces separated by a non-
conducting (dielectric) material. It is an important
element as it has the ability to store energy in its
electric field (capacitance).

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http://gallery.hd.org/_c/electronics/electrolytic-and-tantalum-capacitors-DHD.jpg.html
Fundamental Characteristics

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Inductors
The inductor is a circuit element that
consists of a conducting wire usually in the
form of a coil. It is an important element as
it has the ability to store energy in its
magnetic field (inductance).

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http://www.coilws.com/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=208_212
Fundamental Characteristics

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Dual Relationship of C and L

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Dual Relationship of C and L

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Capacitor Combinations

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Inductor Combinations

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Coupled Circuits
 Coils that share a common magnetic flux are
mutually coupled; that is, a time-varying current
in one coil induces a voltage in the other coil.

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 An increasing current i1 in coil 1 (directed as
shown) results in a magnetic flux φ which
induces voltages e1 and e2 in coils 1 and 2,
respectively. From Faraday’s Law, we get

 L11 and L12 are self and mutual inductances,

respectively.
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Polarity Marks
 One end of each coil is marked to indicate the
relative polarity of the induced voltages.

 The voltages from the marked terminals to the

unmarked terminals have the same polarity.

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When currents flow in both coils, the
induced voltage will have a component
due to self-inductance and another
component due to the mutual inductance.

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Differential Equations
Definition: Differential equations are equations
that involve dependent variables and their
derivatives with respect to the independent
variables.

Simple harmonic d 2u
 ku  0
motion: u(x) dx 2

Wave equation in three  2u  2u  2u  2

u
   c 2
dimensions: u(x,y,z,t) x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2

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Ordinary Differential Equations
Definition: Ordinary differential equations (ODE)
are differential equations that involve only ONE
independent variable.

Example:
d 2u( x )
 ku  0
dx 2

u(x) is the dependent variable

x is the independent variable

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Ordinary Differential Equations
We can classify all ODEs according to
order, linearity and homogeneity.

The order of a differential equation is just the

highest differential term involved:

d 2y dy
a2  a1  a0  0 2nd order
dt 2
dt

dx d 3x
x 3 3rd order
dt dt
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Linearity
The important issue is how the unknown variable
(ie y) appears in the equation. A linear equation
must have constant coefficients, or coefficients
which depend on the independent variable. If y or
its derivatives appear in the coefficient the
equation is non-linear.

dy dy 2
 y  0 is linear t 0 is linear
dt dt
dx dy 2
 x 2  0 is non-linear y  t  0 is non-linear
dt dt

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Linearity - Summary

Linear Non-linear
2y y2 or sin( y )

dy dy
y
dt dt

(23sint)y (23y2)y
2
dy  dy 
t  
dt  dt 

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Homogeniety
Put all the terms of the differential equation which
involve the dependent variable on the left hand
side (LHS) of the equation.

Homogeneous: If there is nothing left on the right-

hand side (RHS), the equation is homogeneous.
(unforced or free)

Nonhomogeneous: If there are terms left on the

RHS involving constants or the independent
variable, the equation is nonhomogeneous (forced)

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Examples of Classification
 1st Order
dy
 y0  Linear
dx  Homogeneous

2 2nd Order
d y
2
 cos( x) y 2
 sin( x ) Non-linear
dx Non-homogeneous

3rd Order
d y3
5 3  4y  cos( x ) Linear
dx Non-homogeneous

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Linear Differential Equations
A linear ordinary differential equation describing
linear electric circuits is of the form
dnx d n 1x dx
an n
 an1 n 1
 ...  a  a0  v( t )
dt
1
dt dt
where
an, an-1,…,a0 constants
x(t) dependent variable (current or voltage)
t independent variable
v(t) voltage or current sources

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Linear Differential Equations
Assume that we are given a network of passive
elements and sources where all currents and
voltages are initially known.

At a reference instant of time designated t=0, the

system is altered in a manner that is represented
by the opening or closing of a switch.

Our objective is to obtain equations for currents

and voltages in terms of time measured from the
instant equilibrium was altered by the switching.
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Solution to Differential Equations
1 R
In the network shown, the 2
+
switch is moved from position E
-
L
1 to position 2 at time t=0.

After switching, the KVL equation is

di
L  Ri  0 (1)
dt
Re-arranging the equation to separate the
variables, we get
di R
  dt (2)
i L
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Solution to Differential Equations

Equation 2 can be integrated to give

R (3)
lni   t  K
L
where ln means the natural logarithm (base e).
The constant K can be expressed as ln k

Thus, equation 3 can be written as

ln i  ln e Rt / L  ln k (4)

We know that ln y + ln z = ln yz
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Solution to Differential Equations

Equation 4 is equivalent to

ln i  ln ( ke  Rt / L ) (5)

Applying the antilogarithm we get

i  ke  Rt / L (6)

Equation 6 is known as the general solution. If

the constant k is evaluated, the solution is a
particular solution.

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General and Particular Solutions

The general solution refers to a set of solutions

satisfying the differential equation.

A particular 1.5e-250t
solution fits the
specification of a e-250t
particular problem. 0.5e-250t

Assume in the
previous circuit,
R=1k, L=4H.

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Transient Analysis of
First-Order Networks

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 First-Order Transients
Consider the homogeneous differential equation
dx
a  bx  0
dt
with initial condition x(0)=X0.

The solution can be shown to be an exponential of

the form
x  Kst
where K and s are constants. Substitution gives
s
t s
t
a
sKb
K0
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After canceling the exponential term, we get
b
asb0 or s
a
Thus the solution is
b
 t
x  K a

The constant K can be found using the given initial

condition. At t=0, we get
0
x
(0
)X0K
 K
The final solution is
b
t
xX 0
a
t0
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Source-Free RL Network
Consider the circuit shown. Let R
i(0) = I0. From KVL, we get
i
L
di
L  Ri  0
dt
The solution can be found to be
R
 t
i  K L

At t=0, we get
0
i
(0)I
0 K K
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Substitution gives
R
 t
i(t)I0 L

From Ohm’s Law, we get the resistor voltage.

R
t
v
RRiRI 0
L

The voltage across the inductor is given by

R
di  t
vL  L  RI0  L
 v R
dt
Note: Every current and voltage in an RL
network is a decaying exponential with a
time constant of =L/R.
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 Source-Free RC Network
Consider the circuit shown. Let R
vC(0) = V0. From KCL, we get
for t  0 i +
C vC
dvC 1 -
C  vC  0
dt R
The solution can be shown to be
1
 t
vC K RC

At t=0, we get
0
v
C(
0)V
0K
 K
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Substitution gives
1
 t
v
C(t
)V
0 R
C

From Ohm’s Law, we get the resistor current.

1
vC V0  t
iR    RC

R R
The current in the capacitor is is given by
1
dvC V0  RC t
iC  C    iR
dt R
Note: Every current and voltage in an RC
network is a decaying exponential with a
time constant of =RC.
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The Exponential Function
1
t
Given the function x
(t)X0

0
When t=0, x
(0)X
0 X0
1
When t=, x
(
)X
0  0
.
368
X0
2
When t=2, x
(
2
)X
0  0
.
135
X0
3
When t=3, x
(
3
)X
0  0
.
050
X0
4
When t=4, x
(
4
)X
0 
 0
.
018
X0
5
When t=5, x
(
5
)X
0  0
.
007
X0

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Plot of the Exponential Function

X0 .. 1
.. -t
..
.. x ( t )  X 0e 
t0
..
..
..
...
...
. ..
. . .. . . .. . . .
1 2 3 4 5 t 

Note: As seen from the plot, after t=5, or after 5

time constants, the function is practically zero.
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Comments:

1. When R is expressed in ohms, L in Henrys

and C in Farads, the time constant is in
seconds.
2. For practical circuits, the typical values of
the parameters are: R in ohms, L in mH,
C in F.
3. Typically, L in msec
R
  RC in sec

Note: For practical circuits, the exponential

function will decay to zero in less than 1 second.
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A More General RL Circuit
The circuit shown has several resistors but only
one inductor. Given 4 0.1H
i1(0+)=I0=2 Amps,
find i1, i2, and i3 for i2 i3 i1 I0
t  0. 6 3 2

First, determine the

equivalent resistance 4 a b
seen by the inductor.
6(3)
R ab  2 4 6 3 2
63
8
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Next, find the time constant of the circuit.
L 1
  sec
R ab 80
Every current will be described by the exponential
80t
K t0
For example, we get

i1Kε
1
80t
t0
At t=0+, i1(0+)=I0=2 Amps. Thus, we get
 0
i
1(0)2
K 
1 K
1

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Thus, we find the current i1 to be
8
0t
i
12
 A
mp
st0
The remaining currents, i2 and i3, can be found
using current division. We get
3 1
i2  i1  i1
36 3
or
2  80t
i2   Amps t0
3
Similarly, we get
4  80t
i3   Amps t0
3
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 A More General RC Circuit
The circuit shown has several resistors but only
one capacitor. Given
vC(0+)=V0=20 volts,
find i for t  0. 2K
6k + i 3k
1F vC
First, determine the -
equivalent resistance
seen by the capacitor.
6k(3k) 2K
R ab  2k  6k 3k
6k  3k a
 4 k b

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Next, find the time constant of the circuit.


RC
a
b 
(
4k
)
(
1
F)
4m
s
ec
Any current or voltage will be described by the
exponential
250t
K t0
For example, we get

250
t
v
CK
 t0
At t=0+, vC(0+)=V0=20 volts. Thus, we get
 0
v
C(
0 )2
0K
 K
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Thus, we find the Voltage vC to be

25
0t
v
C2
0
 v
o
lt
st
0
The current in the capacitor is described by
dvC
iC  C  5 250 t mA t0
dt
Applying current division, we get the current i(t).
6k
i(t)  (-iC )  3.33 e - 250 t
mA t0
6k  3k

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RL Network with Constant Source
R
In the circuit shown, the
switch is closed at t = 0. t=0
+ i
Find current i(t) for t  0. E L
-
For t  0, we get from
KVL
di
L  Ri  E
dt
The solution of a non-homogeneous differential
equation consists of two components:
1. The transient response (homogeneous)
2. The steady-state response (particular)
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Transient Response: The solution of the homo-
geneous differential equation; that is

dit
L  Rit  0
dt
The transient response for the RL circuit is
R
 t
it  K L

Steady-State Response: The solution of the

differential equation itself; that is
diss
L  Riss  E
dt
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The steady-state response is similar in form to the
forcing function plus all its unique derivatives. For
constant excitation, the steady-state response is
also constant.
Let iss=A, constant
diss
0
dt
Substitute in the differential equation

0RAE
or
E
A
R
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Complete Response: The sum of the transient
response and steady-state response.
R
E  t
i(t)  iss  it   K L t0
R
Initial Condition: For t<0, i=0 since the switch is
open. At t=0+, or immediately after the switch is
closed, i(0+)=0 since the current in the inductor
cannot change instantaneously.
Evaluate K. At t=0+, we get
E E
i(0 )  0   K0

or K
R R
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Finally,we get
E E  RL t
i(t)    t0
R R
A plot of the current for t  0 is shown below.
E iss
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
R ....
i(t) ....
...
...
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
2 .... 4 t 
it
....
...
E ...

R
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 Transient Response
The transient response is the solution of the
homogeneous differential equation.
(1) It is an exponential function whose time
constant depends on the values of the electrical
parameters (R, L and C);
(2) It is also called the natural response since it is
a “trademark” of any network;
(3) It is independent of the source; and
(4) It serves as the transition from the initial
steady-state to the final steady-state value.
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Steady-State Response
The steady-state response is the solution of the
original differential equation.
(1) It is also called the forced response since its
form is forced on the electrical network by the
applied source;
(2) It is similar in form to the applied source plus
all its unique derivatives;
(3) It is independent of the initial conditions; and
(4) It exists for as long as the source is applied.

The forced response is the response that will be left after

the natural response dies out.
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RC Network with Constant Source
R
In the circuit shown, the
switch is closed at t = 0. t=0
+ i +
Assume vC(0)=V0. Find E C vC
vC(t) for t  0. - -

For t  0, we get from KVL

Ri vC E
dvC
Since i  C , we get
dt
dvC
RC  vC  E
dt
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Transient Response: For an RC network, we get
1
 t
vC , t  K RC

Steady-State Response: Since the forcing

function is constant, the steady-state response is
also constant.
Let vC,ss = A, constant
dvC , ss
0
dt
Substitute in
dvC , ss
RC  vC , ss  E
dt
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We get
0 A  E or A E
Complete Response: Add the transient response
and steady-state response.
1
 t
vC  vC , ss  vC ,t  E  K RC

Evaluate K. At t=0+, we get

v(
0
C ) V
0EKor K V0 E

Finally,we get
1
t
v
(
Ct
)E
(
V
0E
)
 RC
t
0
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L and C at Steady State
With all sources constant, then at steady-state, all
currents and voltages are constant.
I0 L iC C
+ vL -
+ V0 -
If the current is If the voltage is
constant, then constant, then
dI0 dV0
vL  L 0 iC  C 0
dt dt
Note: With constant sources, L is short-circuited
and C is open-circuited at steady state condition.
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Example: Find the 10
current and voltages + vR - +
+
at steady state. 24V i vL L
- -

Since the source is constant,

the inductor is shorted at
steady state.
24
10 iss   2.4 A
10
+ vR,ss - +
24V
+
iss vL,ss vR,ss 24V
- -
vL,ss  0
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Example: Find the 10
current and voltages + vR - +
+
at steady state. 24V i vC C
- -

Since the source is constant,

the capacitor is open-circuited
at steady state.
10 iss  0
+ vR,ss - +
24V
+
iss vC,ss vR,ss  0
- -
vC,ss 24V
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Example: Find the 3
inductor current and
capacitor voltage at + + L iL
steady state. 24V - vC C
- 9

At steady state, short

the inductor and open
the capacitor. 3
24
iL ,ss   2A + + iL,ss
12 24V - vC,ss
- 9
v
C,
ss9
iL
,s
s 1
8V
ELCIAN1 - p71
 iL1
4
Example: Find the
inductor currents 8
+ + +
and capacitor 24V vC1 C3 vC3
- +
voltages at - vC2 iL2 -
steady state. -

Equivalent circuit at steady-state

IL1 IL1  0
4
IL2  2 A
8 VC1 1 6V
+ + +
24V VC1 + C3 VC3
-
- VC2 IL2 - VC2  0
- VC3 1 6V
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 4
Example: The switch is
closed at t=0. Find the t=0
current i(t) for t  0. + i
12V - 10mH

The transient current is

R
t
4
00
t
i
tK
 
K L
t
 0
The steady-state equivalent circuit for t  0
4
12
Iss   3A + Iss
4 12V
-

ELCIAN1 - p73
The complete solution
4
0
0t
i
(
t)
i
si
s t3
K
 t
0
Initial condition: At t=0+, i(0+)=0 since the
inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
Evaluate K: At t = 0+,
 0
i
(0)03K
or
K  3
Thus, we get

40
0t
i
(t
)3
3
 At0
ELCIAN1 - p74
RL and RC Networks
The solution of a non-homogeneous differential
equation consists of two components: the transient
response and the steady-state response
RL Network with RC Network with
Constant Source Constant Source
R 1
t  t
i(t)AK
 L
(t)A
v K R
C

steady-state transient steady-state transient

response response response response

With constant sources, L is short-circuited and C is

open-circuited at steady state condition.
ELCIAN1 - p75
Example: The switch has been in position 1 for a
long time. At t=0, the switch is moved to position
2. Find the current i(t) for t  0.
5k 1 2 10k
t=0
+ + +
12V vC 1F i 6V
- -
-

The circuit is at steady-state 5k

condition prior to switching.
+ +
- 12V vC,ss
v
C,
ss
12Vv
C(
0 ) - -

ELCIAN1 - p76
Equivalent circuit for t  0
10k
From KVL, we get
+
1 t
1F i E=6V
Ri 
C  idt  E -

At t=0+,
 
R
i
(0) v(
0
C ) E
or E  v (0
)
i(0 ) 
 C
R
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change
instantaneously,
 -
v
C(
0)v
C(
0)1
2V
ELCIAN1 - p77
We get
6  12 10k
i(0 ) 

 0.6 mA
10k VC(0+) i
+
1uF 6V
=12V -
The transient response is
1
t
1
0
0t
i
tK
 
K
RC
t
 0
The steady-state current is zero since the capacitor
will be open-circuited. Thus, the total current is
equal to the transient current. Since i(0+)=-0.6 mA,
we get
1
0
0t
i
(t
)
0.
6 mAt
0
ELCIAN1 - p78
Comments:
10k
- VR +
+ +
VC 1uF i 6V
- -

1. The actual current flows in the clockwise

direction. The capacitor supplies the current.
The 6-volt source is absorbing power.
2. The voltages across the resistor and capacitor
can be found to be

1
00
t
v
R
Ri
(
t)
6
 Vt
0

10
0
t
v

C6
v
R6
6 Vt
0
ELCIAN1 - p79
Comments:
3. The energy stored in the capacitor decreases
from 72 J to 18 J.
 1 21
W
(
0)
CC
v(
0)
(
2C
1
F)
(
12
)
2
7
2
J 2


W
(
)
C C
v
(
1 2
)
2 C
(
11
F
2)
(
6)
1
8
J 2

The resistor will dissipate a total energy of 18 J.

 v2  36  200t
WR   dt    dt  18 J
0 R 0 10k

The 6V source will absorb a total energy of 36 J.

 
 


W
R V
i
d
t 
6
(0
.
61
0
0t
m A
)
d
t
3
6J
0 0
ELCIAN1 - p80
Example: The network has reached steady-state
condition with the switch in position 1. At t=0, the
switch is moved to position 2. Find i, vc1 and vC2 for
t  0. Assume that capacitor C2 is initially
uncharged. 10k 1 2 2.5k
t=0 +
+ +
100V 5F vC1 i vC2 20F
- -
-

10k
The circuit is at steady-state
prior to switching. + +
100V vC1,ss
vC
1 s
,s 10
0V - -
ELCIAN1 - p81
 2.5k
Equivalent circuit at t=0+

v(0 )1
00Vv + i(0+) +
C1(0 ) vC2(0+)
C1 +
C1 C2

vC2(0)0 - -

From KVL, we get

  
v
C
1(
0)R
i
(0)v
2 )
C(
0
Substitution gives i(0+) = 40 mA.
2.5k
Equivalent circuit for t  0

Ceq 4F +
i
+
5F 20F
- -
RC
eq10ms
ELCIAN1 - p82
The current for a source-free RC circuit is given by
1
t

10
0t
i
(t
)K
 
K t

R
0
C

Since i(0+) = 40 mA, we get


10
0t
i
(t
)4
0 m
At0
The voltages are

1
00
t
vR  Ri
(t)  10 0 V t  0
1 t 1 t
vC 2   idt  vC 2 (0 ) 
C2  


C2 0 
idt

10
0t

20
20
 Vt0
ELCIAN1 - p83
 v1 v
C RvC
2

10
0t

20
80
 Vt0
Comments:
1. The current decays to zero but vC1 And vC2 do
not decay to zero. At steady-state (t=),
V
C
1,
ssV
C2
,s
s 2
0V
2. The initial energy stored in C1 and C2
 1 2 
W
(
C0
1 )C
21v
C
1(
0)2
5m
J
 2 
W
C
2(
0)Cv(
0)
0 1
22C2
ELCIAN1 - p84
3. The final energy stored in C1 and C2
1 2
W
(
C
1)
 C
v
21C
1(
)
1mJ
1 2
W
C
2(
)Cv(
)
4mJ 22C
2

4. The total energy lost is 20 mJ.

5. The total energy dissipated by the resistor
 
 
2 
20
0
t
W

R i
Rdt
 4
dt
20
mJ
0 0

Note: At t=0+, vC1=100 volts and vC2=0. Capacitor

C1 supplies the current that charges capacitor C2.
The current stops when vC1 = vC2 =20 V.
ELCIAN1 - p85
Example: The network has reached steady-state
condition with the switch closed. At t=0, the switch
is opened. Find i(t) 1k t=0 2k
for t  0.
+ +
12V i 0.1H 36V
- -

The circuit is at steady-

state prior to switching. 1k 2k

12 36 + +
IL ,ss   12V IL,ss
1k 2k - - 36V

 30mA
ELCIAN1 - p86
Equivalent circuit for t  0 1k

The transient current is +

R 12V i 0.1H
t -

it K L
K 10,0
00t

At steady-state, the inductor is short-circuited.

Thus, the steady state current is 12 mA.
The complete response is

i
(t
)1
2
K1
0,
000
t
m
A
t 0
Since i(0+) = 30 mA, we get K = 18 mA. The final
expression is

i
(t
)1
2
1
81
0,
000
t
m
A
t 0
ELCIAN1 - p87
First-Order RL and RC Circuits
General Procedure
1. Find f(0+), the initial value of the variable to
be solved.
2. Find f(), the final value of the variable to be
solved.
Note: When solving for the initial and final values, treat the
capacitors as open circuits & the inductors as short circuits.

1. Simplify the RC or RL circuit to get Req, Ceq or

Leq. The time constant  is ReqCeq or Leq/Req.
1. The solution is:
f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/
ELCIAN1 - p88
NOTES:
1. f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

forced response natural response

2. Req is the thevenin resistance seen by the
capacitor or inductor.
3. If a switch changed state (closes or opens) at
t = t0, then
vC(t0+) = vC(t0-) iL(t0+) = iL(t0-)
“The voltage across a “The current through an
capacitor cannot change inductor cannot change
instantaneously.” instantaneously.”
All other voltages and currents can change instantaneously.
ELCIAN1 - p89
 t=0 1 k i (t)
R
Example: In the circuit,
vC1(0-) = 12 V + +
and vC2(0-) = 0 V. vC1 3 uF 6 uF vC2
_ _
Find vC1(t), vC2(t) and iR(t).

Step 1: Initial conditions

At att=0
t = 0++ :  
1 k 12 mA
v
C(
10)v
C1 )
(0 1
2V
+ +
 
12 V 3 uF 6 uF 0V v
C(
20) 
vC(0
2 )0
V
_ _

v (0 
)  v (0 
) 12  0
iR (0 ) 
 C1 C2
  12mA
1kΩ 1k ELCIAN1 - p90
Step 2: Final conditions
After a very long time, iR() = 0.
Therefore, vC1() = vC2() or
Q1 Q2
  2Q1  Q2
3u 6u
Initial charge stored = final charge stored
(12V)(3uF)  36uC  Q1  Q2  Q1  2Q1
 Q1  12uC and Q2  24uC
1 k 0 mA

Therefore, vC1() = 4 V + +
4V 3 uF 6 uF 4V
vC2() = 4 V _ _

ELCIAN1 - p91
Step 3: Find the time constant, 
Req = 1 k
Ceq = 3 uF in series with 6 uF = 2 uF

Therefore,  = ReqCeq = (1 k)(2u) = 2 ms

Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

iR(t) = 0 + [12 - 0] e-t / 2ms = 12 e -t / 2ms mA

vC1(t) = 4 + [12 - 4] e-t / 2ms
= 4 + 8 e -t / 2ms V
vC2(t) = 4 + [0 - 4] e-t / 2ms
=4-4e -t / 2ms V
ELCIAN1 - p92
12
iR(t) = 12 e -t / 2ms mAiR

10
vC1(t) = 4 + 8 e -t / 2msvC1V
vC2(t) = 4 - 4 e -t / 2ms C2
V
v

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
ELCIAN1 - p93
 2.4 k
Example: Find the inductor t=0
iL(t)
current iL(t) and the
+
inductor voltage vL(t).
10 V 80 uH vL(t)
_
Step 1: Initial conditions
iL(0+) = iL(0-) = 0 vL(0+) = 10 V

Step 2: Final conditions

2.4 k The inductor will behave like a
short circuit so
+
10 V 80 uH 0V vL() = 0 V
_
iL() = 102400= 4.167 mA
ELCIAN1 - p94
Step 3: Find the time constant, 
Req = 2.4 kLeq = 80 uH
Therefore  = Leq / Req = 33.33 ns

Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

iL(t) = 4.167 + [0 - 4.167] e-t/33.33n

= 4.167 - 4.167 e-t/33.33n mA

vL(t) = 0 + [10 - 0] e-t/33.33n V

= 10 e-t/33.33n V

ELCIAN1 - p95
10
iL
9 vL

8
Forced response Transient response
7

6
iL(t) = 4.167 - 4.167 e-t/33.33n mA
5
vL(t) = 10 e-t/33.33u V
4

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-4
x 10
ELCIAN1 - p96
Example: If the switch in the network closes at
t=0, find v0(t) for t>0.
24V 2vA
4
-+ -+
+ +
3A vA 4 2F vo
- -

Step 1: Initial conditions

At t=0- 24V 2vA
4 vA(0-)=3A(4)
-+ -+ = 12V
+ +
3A vA 4 vC (0-) vC(0-)= 2vA+24+vA
- -
= 60 V
ELCIAN1 - p97
At t=0+,
v0(0+) = vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 60V
Step 2: Final conditions
24V 2vA
4
-+ -+
vA,ss = 0
+ +
3A vA 4 vo v0,ss = 24V
- -

Step 3: Find the time constant, 

Since we have a dependent source, the equivalent
resistance seen by the capacitor can be obtained
by finding vOC/iSC
ELCIAN1 - p98
Determine vOC 24V 2vA
4
-+ -+
+ +
v0C = 24V 3A vA 4 vOC
- -

Get iSC 2vA

4 24V
-+ -+ From KVL,
+
3A vA 4 iSC 2vA + vA = -24
- vA = -8V

The two resistors are in parallel, thus

2iSC –24 –2vA = 0 iSC = 4 A

ELCIAN1 - p99
The equivalent resistance is
Req = vOC ÷ iSC = 24V / 4A = 6

The time constant is

 = ReqC = 6(2F)= 12sec

Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

v0(t) = 24 + [60 - 24] e-t/12 V

= 24 + 36 e-t/12 V

ELCIAN1 - p100
Unit Step Forcing Function

0 t 0
u (t)   +
u(t) u(t)
1 t0 _

u(t)

ELCIAN1 - p101
Example
5u(t)

5V
+
5 u(t) V _

t < 0: t > 0:

+
5V _

ELCIAN1 - p102
Translated Step Step Function
Function Inverted in Time
0 t  t o 1 t  t o
u (t  to )   u (to  t )  
1 t  to 0 t  t o
u(t-t0) u(t0-t)

1 1

t0 t t0 t

ELCIAN1 - p103
Example

2u(2-t)
2mA
2 u(2 - t)
mA
2 t

2 - t > 0 or t < 2 s: 2 - t < 0 or t > 2 s:

2 mA

ELCIAN1 - p104
Example: The circuit shown is initially at steady-
state condition. Formulate the expression for
vC(t) and iR(t) for t>0. i
3k R

+ +
24u(t) – 24u(t-4ms) vc 1F 6k
-
-

Evaluate the forcing function:

24V 24V
24V 1

t 4ms t 4ms t
24u(t) 24u(t-4ms) 24u(t) - 24u(t-4ms)
ELCIAN1 - p105
We need to evaluate the circuit using two time
intervals: 0 < t < 4ms , voltage source = 24V
t > 4ms , voltage source = 0
First time interval: 0 < t < 4ms
At t<0, the circuit is in steady-state. The
3kand 6k resistors will dissipate whatever
energy is initially stored in C, thus vC(0-) = 0.
At t = 0+:
3k iR(0+)
vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 0
+ +
24V vC (0+)=0 1F 6k iR(0+) = 0
-
-

ELCIAN1 - p106
 Time constant for 0<t<4ms 3k iR
  ReqC + +
(2K)(1
F) 24 V vC 1F 6k
-
-
 2msec
The transient response is of the form
vC,t K1e-500t
iR,t K2e-500t
Equivalent circuit at steady-state
6 3k iR,ss
vC ,ss  ( 24 V)  16V
36 + +
24 V vC,ss 6k
24V - -
iR ,ss   2.67 mA
3k  6 k
ELCIAN1 - p107
Complete Response
vC ( t )  16  K1e -500t
V
i R ( t )  2.67  K 2e -500t mA
Evaluate the constants K1 and K2 using initial
conditions.

v
(0
C)
01
6
K1o
rK
1
-1
6

i
R)
(
0 
02
.
67
K2orK
2-2
.
67
Thus, we get
v
(
Ct
)
1
61
6-
5
e0
0t
V
0
t4m
s
e
c
i
R(
t
)2
.
6
72
.
6em
7 A
0
t
4m
s
ec -
5
00t

ELCIAN1 - p108
Second time interval: t > 4ms
To get initial conditions, determine the voltage vC
right before switching.
v
(
Cm
4-
s
)
1
61
6-
5
e0
0(
0.
004
)
1
3
.8
3V
At t = 4ms+
3k
iR vC(4ms+) = vC(4ms-)
= 13.83 V
vC(4ms+) +
13.83V -
1F 6k
iR(4ms+) = 13.83 ÷ 6k
= 2.305 mA
Note:
iR ( 4ms  )  2.67  2.67e -500(0.004 ) i ( 
s) 
R4 m iR(4 m s)
 2.31 mA ELCIAN1 - p109
Equivalent circuit for t  4 ms. iR
3k
Req = 3k || 6k= 2K
+
'  R eq C  (2 K)(1F) vC 1F 6k
-
 2 msec
This is a source-free network, so at steady-state
i’R,ss=0 and v’C,ss=0.
Let t=t’+4 ms. For t’  0, the capacitor voltage
and resistor current is described by
v
C(
t'
) 
13
.
83-
5
e00
t
'
V'
,t 0
i
R(t
')2
.
30e m
5 A'
,t 0 -
500
t
'

ELCIAN1 - p110
 Transient and Steady-State Response
10

9 iL(t) = 4.167 - 4.167 e-t/33.33n mA

iL
v
iL(0+)=0A iL()=4.167mA L

7 vL(t) = 10 e-t/33.33u V
Transient
6
vL(0+)=10V vL()=0V
response Steady-state
5 Response
4

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-4
=33.33 ns 5=1.67x10-4 s x 10
ELCIAN1 - p111
Example: The circuit shown is initially at steady-
state condition. Formulate the expression for
vC(t) and iR(t) for t>0. i
3k R

+ +
24u(t) – 24u(t-4ms) vc 1F 6k
-
-

Evaluate the forcing function:

24V 24V
24V 1

t 4ms t 4ms t
24u(t) 24u(t-4ms) 24u(t) - 24u(t-4ms)
ELCIAN1 - p112
Thus, the expression for vC and iR for t>0

16 – 16e-500t V, t < 4ms

vC(t) =
13.83e-500(t-4ms) V, t > 4ms

2.67 – 2.67e-500t mA, t < 4ms

iR(t) =
2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA, t > 4ms

ELCIAN1 - p113
V
VCC(t)
(t)
(V)
(V)

16 – 16e-500t V Graph for vc(t)

16 – 16e-500t V, t < 4ms
13.83e-500(t-4ms) V, t > 4ms

=2 ms
5= 10 ms

13.83e-500(t-4ms)

t
ELCIAN1 - p114
 iR(t)
(mA)

2.67 – 2.67e-500t mA
Graph for iR(t)
2.67 – 2.67e-500t mA, t < 4ms
2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA, t > 4ms
=2 ms
5= 10 ms

2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA

ELCIAN1 - p115
Equivalent of Switching

v(t)
General General
Vu(t-t0) V
+
V +
_ Networ Networ
k _ k
t0 t

Equivalent circuit

i(t)
General General
Iu(t-t0)
Networ I Networ
k k
t0 t

Equivalent circuit
ELCIAN1 - p116
 50 
Example: Find i(t) i
for t>0. 30 
2 u(t) 2H
+
_ 100 u(t)

When t < 0, the sources At t = 0+, the sources

are off, thus i(0-) = 0 A turn on 50 
50  i
i 30 
30  2A 2H
2H +
_ 100 V

i(0+) = i(0-) ELCIAN1

= 0 A - p117
Final condition: After a very long time, the
inductor will behave like a short circuit
50  From KCL, i + ix = 2
i
KVL yields
30 
2A ix -100 – 30ix + 50i = 0
+
_ 100 V Thus, i = 2 A and ix = 0
i() = 2 A
Time constant:
Leq = 2 H  = 0.025 s
Req = 30 + 50 = 80 
Finally, i(t) = i() + [i(0+) – i()]e-t/
i(t) = 2 + (0 – 2) e-t/0.025 = 2 - 2 e-40t A
ELCIAN1 - p118
Sinusoidal Sources
Consider the network shown. R
Let v(t)=Vm sin t where Vm t=0
+
and are constant.
v(t) i L
For t  0, we get from KVL -

di
L  Ri  Vm sin t
dt
The transient response is
R
t
it K L
t0
Remember: The transient response is independent
of the source.
ELCIAN1 - p119
The steady-state response is the solution of the
differential equation itself. Let
iss  K1sin t K 2cos t
diss
 K1 cos t - K2 sin t
dt
Substituting in the original equation
di
L  Ri  Vm sin t
dt
gives


L
K1c
os
t-
LK
s
2i
n 
t

RK
s
1i
nt
RK
c
o
2s
t
Vs
i
mn
t
ELCIAN1 - p120
Substitution gives

L
K1c
os
t-
LK
s
2i
n 
t

RK
s
1i
nt
RK
c
o
2s
t
Vs
i
mn
t

Comparing coefficients, we get

V
mRK
1L
K2 and 0R
K2L
K1

Solving simultaneously, we get

RVm  LVm
K1  2 and K 2  2
R  2L2 R  2L2
ELCIAN1 - p121
The steady-state response is
i
ssK
1s
in
tK
c
2os
t
Substituting K1 and K2
Vm
iss  2 (R sin t  L cos t)
R L 2 2

The complete response is

Vm
i(t)  2 (R sin t  L cos t)
R L 2 2
R
 t
K
 L
t0
ELCIAN1 - p122