Biology

Exclude: 19,20,25,55,56
1. • Most of Earth's oxygen comes from tiny ocean plants – called
phytoplankton – that live near the water's surface and drift with the
currents.
2. Recall: Chloroplasts-the food producers of the cell; found only in plant cells and some protists such
as algae; convert light energy of the sun into sugars that can be used by cells.
DNA- a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions for the development and function of living
things. All known cellular life and some viruses contain DNA. main role:long-term storage of info
A. The mitochondrion CANNOT live on its own.
Recall: Mitochondria-working organelles that keep the cell full of energy; power house of the cell.
Muscle cells need a lot of energy so they have loads of mitochondria.
Every attempt failed. The mitochondria are incapable of living without the support from the cells
that contain them.
It is possible to isolate mitochondria from cells, and study (some of) their function(s), but you are
limited to about 12 hours (at the extreme) before all mitochondrial function is lost.
• B. But according to biology a organism which reproduce and need food is a living thing.
The cell here shows both properties. There is not a single definition which can define
a cell as a living and non living thing. The answer contains the same controversies like
blackhole and whitehole in space.
• C. Endosymbiosis Theory-Eukaryotic cells may have evolved from prokaryotic cells.
2. • C. Endosymbiosis Theory
There are a great many differences between Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells in size,
complexity, internal compartments.
However, there is a curious similarity between prokaryotic cells and the organelles of eukaryotic
cells.

[Endo = "within"]
[Endocytosis = (cyto = cell) a process of 'cell eating' - cells are engulfed, but then usually digested as
food....]
[Endosymbiosis = cells are engulfed, but not digested...cells live together is a mutually benefitting
relationship, or symbiosis]
 Mitochondria Prokaryote (no true nucleus)

Mitochondria make proteins since these contain ribosomes.

The DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasta re arranged in a
similar way as that of prokaryotes, specifically bacteria.
2. • C. Endosymbiosis Theory

The aerobic bacteria would have handled the toxic

oxygen for the anaerobic bacteria, and the anaerobic
bacteria would ingested food and protected the aerobic
"symbiote"..
4. • : cranial capacity
the cubic capacity of the braincase estimated for the living by a formula based on head
measurements and determined for the skull by filling the cranial cavity with particulate
material (as mustard seed or small shot) and measuring the volume of the latter.

“size of head”
5. • integumentary system- an organ system consisting of the skin, hair,
nails, and exocrine glands.
Exocrine glands are glands (groups of cells) that produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial
surface by way of a duct. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat, salivary, mammary,
ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceous, and mucous.

In vertebrates,
Ectoderm-eventually forms the outer covering
of the animal
Endoderm-forms the internal lining
Mesoderm-forms the bones and muscles
6. • Osmosis is the movement of water or other solvent through a plasma membrane from a region of
low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration, which occurs because both
sides want to achieve equilibrium.
• (Note: Osmosis is passive transport, meaning it does not require energy to be applied. )
hypertonic solution-a particular type of solution that has a greater concentration of solutes on the
outside of a cell when compared with the inside of a cell.
6. • Osmosis is the movement of water or other solvent through a plasma membrane from a region of
low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration, which occurs because both
sides want to achieve equilibrium.
• (Note: Osmosis is passive transport, meaning it does not require energy to be applied. )
hypertonic solution-a particular type of solution that has a greater concentration of solutes on the
outside of a cell when compared with the inside of a cell.
8.

DNA probes are stretches of single-stranded DNA used to detect the presence of complementary nucleic
acid sequences (target sequences) by hybridization. DNA probes are usually labelled, for example with
radioisotopes, epitopes, biotin or fluorophores to enable their detection.
9. • Adenine
• Nitrogenous bases in DNA:

• Thymine
• Cytosine
• Guanine
10.
• main biological function of a nitrogenous base- to bond nucleic acids together; they make up the
building blocks of DNA and RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil.These bases are
crucially important because the sequencing of them in DNA and RNA is the way information is
stored.
11.
• The light independent process (also called dark reactions or the Calvin-Benson cycle) takes place
in the stroma of the chloroplast. Carbon dioxide is modified by series of chemical reactions to
form carbohydrates. The energy for these reactions comes from ATP and NADPH generated
during the light dependent process.
12.• Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration involve chemical reactions
which take place in the cell to produce energy, which is needed for
active processes.
• Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria and requires oxygen and glucose, and
produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy.chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
(glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water).
• Anaerobic respiration also produces energy and uses glucose, but it produces less energy and
does not require oxygen; useful in tissues with high energy demand such as in working muscles, in
which there is not enough oxygen to produce all the energy needed by using aerobic respiration
alone.
The chemical equation is C6H12O6 -> 2C3H6O3 (Glucose -> Lactic acid). The lactic acid then needs
to be oxidised later to carbon dioxide and water afterwards to prevent it building up. This process
requires oxygen and therefore following anaerobic respiration there is oxygen debt in the cell, as
oxygen is needed to break down the lactic acid produced.
13.
• central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of information from DNA through RNA into
proteins. This flow of information is called gene expression. It occurs through two main
processes: transcription and translation. Transcription is the synthesis of an RNA molecule that
contains the coding sequence of a gene. Translation follows transcription and in which the amino
acid sequence of a gene is synthesized based on the coding sequence in mRNA.
15.
• Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. The term haploid can also
refer to the number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which are also called gametes. In
humans, gametes are haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes
• We would all be haploids since egg cells are haploid.
• We would be females since egg cells have X chromosomes and never Y chromosomes. (Sperm
cells, on the other hand, can have either X or Y chromosome.)
16.• Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing
spores.

Amoeba reproduces by the common asexual reproduction method called binary fission
 Mosses have two forms of reproduction, asexual or vegetative reproduction
16. and sexual reproduction.
Mosses reproduce by spores, which are analogous to the flowering plant's seed; however, moss
spores are single celled and more primitive than the seed. Spores are housed in the brown capsule
that sits on the seta. As the spores ripen they are dispersed from the capsule, and some land in
areas where there is enough moisture for them to grow. The young moss looks like a very
thin tangled mass of branching green hairs. Buds will appear next on the green hairs, from which
tiny stalks and slim leaves will grow. Some mosses have cups on their tops that produce sperm,
these are male plants. The female counterpart has eggs between her overlapping leaves. Water is
a necessity for fertilization; as the sperm become mature they have to swim to the eggs to fertilize
them. The fertilized egg then produces the stalked brown capsule.
At regular intervals depending on species and weather condition, mosses produce small sexual structures known as archegonium (female structure
that produces egg cells), or antheridium (male structure that produces sperm cells). These can occur on different parts of the same plant but more
often on different plants.

The male plant sometimes has a visible rosette at the shoot tip, which contain a mass of antheridia among protective hairs or surrounded by modified
leaves. In many moss plants a microscope is needed to see the antheridia or archegonia.

When the antheridia are ripe the antherozoids are released, these antherozoids or sperm cells then swim by means of two threadlike tails and are
attracted chemically to the archegonium, where fertilisation occurs to form a zygote. The formation of the zygote begins the second phase of the moss
life cycle where the zygote develops into a sporophyte (spore-plant).
The main difference between fission and fragmentation is that in fission, a unicellular organism breaks
up to form two daughter organisms whereas infragmentation, a multicellular organism breaks up into
various fragments and eachfragment develops into a complete organism.
17. Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout the body, as
well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs.
18.

• Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the

lungs. Pulmonary veins carry oxygen from the lungs to the heart.
21. Virus need host.
27. mRNA- messenger RNA; convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify
the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression

genetic engineering. The science of altering and cloning genes to produce a new trait in an organism
or to make a biological substance, such as a protein or hormone.Genetic engineering mainly involves
the creation of recombinant DNA, which is then inserted into the genetic material of a cell or virus.
33. Atheybiome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the environment
exist in.
Estuaries and their surrounding wetlands are bodies of water usually found where rivers meet the
sea.
A pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than a lake.
A stream is a body of water with surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel.
39. Glucose+glucose=maltose
47. Biomass- the total mass of organisms in a given area or volume
50.

antigen-a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, especially
the production of antibodies.
Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances that can
trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body.

Note: The universal red cell donor has Type O negative blood.
Note: Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, Y-shaped molecules are proteins manufactured by the
body that help fight against foreign substances called antigens. Antigens are any substance that
stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens can be bacteria, viruses, or fungi that
cause infection and disease.
52. The liver produces bile, which is a base and digests fat.
57. Fruits are rich in sugars called fructose.
52. The liver produces bile, which is a base and digests fat.