WATER AND CARBON CYCLES

Slides 2-14 The Water Cycle features, drainage basin and human factors
Slides 16-31 The Carbon Cycle stores, fluxes and circulation factors
Slides 32-? Water, Carbon, Climate. Impacts & mitigation for changes to the water and carbon cycles
 THE WATER CYCLE

The Water Cycle features, drainage basin and human factors

 WATER CYCLE FLOWS
(HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE)

DEFINITION: a system where water continually cycles between the land,

atmosphere and oceans through a range of flows and transfers
• Water exists in different states on/near the Earth’s surface, called the
HYDROSPHERE
• It is held in STORES and flows in and out of these stores as FLUXES
• PROCESSES are mechanisms that drive FLUXES
• STORES of water have RESIDENCE TIMES (amount of time the water
stays within a store before coming back around)

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-The hydrological cycle is a CLOSED SYSTEM (fixed amount of water)
 WATER CYCLE STORES & PROCESSES
(HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE)

Processes driving the change in magnitude of water stores:

Store Residence time
• Water exists as liquid, solid ice and gaseous water vapour
Oceans 3, 600 years
• Process such as melting, freezing, condensation,
Cryosphere (e.g. permafrost, 15,000 years
evaporation, sublimation and deposition all determine the
ice sheets/caps), and alpine
fluxes between the stores of water
glaciers)
Groundwater (rock pores) Up to 10,000 years
EVAPORATION in the water cycle: Surface water (rivers, lakes, 2 weeks – 10 years
• Occurs when social radiation hits the surface of water or wetlands/marshes)
land, causing liquid water to change state from LIQUID to Soil moisture 2 – 50 weeks
GAS (amount of evaporation dependant on several
Atmospheric moisture 10 days
factors…*)
Biological water (biosphere – 1 week
CONDENSATION in the water cycle: determined by vegetation
• The direct cause of all forms of PRECIPITATION cover/type)

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-Whilst the water cycle is a CLOSED SYSTEM, water flows in and out of different STORES due to PROCESSES
 WAT E R CY CL E FE AT UR E : DR AI NAG E B ASI N
(CATCHMENT AREA)

DEFINITION: an area that supplies a river with its supply of water. They are separated
from each other by a high land called a WATERSHED

Water Cycle: GLOBAL

Drainage Basin: LOCAL

INPUTS: precipitation (precipitation, storage, interception

(stem flow), vegetation type, surface storage, soil moisture,
groundwater store and flow, surface storage, infiltration,
surface run-off/overland-flow, percolation, throughflow
OUTPUTS: evapotranspiration, transpiration

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-The drainage basin is an OPEN SYSTEM (amount of water is not fixed) that operates within the hydrological cycle
KEY TERM DEFINITION KEY TERM DEFINITION
1. Precipitation The transfer of water from the air to the 8. Interception Where some precipitation is temporarily
land, where the saturation point reaches caught by plant leaves before reaching
100%. Falls as rain, hail, sleet or snow. the ground by dripping or stem flow.
Greatest when precipitation is light and
of short duration
2. Stem flow Precipitation that is intercepted by trees 9. Infiltration Surface water enters the soil by filtering
& plants before filtering down to reach vertically through soil pores / small
the ground openings

3. Soil moisture Water stored in the soil. 10. Groundwater flow The slow movement of water from the
surface into the soil

4.Transpiration A process by which plants return 11. Surface runoff/Overland flow •Water flowing over the surface.
OUTPUT moisture to the atmosphere, having Saturated–water sits on the surface
taken it in through their roots. until water table reaches
surface/ponds/lakes Infiltration-excess
Evapotranspiration caused by more rainfall than can be
infiltrated. Runoff very fast – flash floods

5. Evaporation
OUTPUT
6. Groundwater storage
7. Surface storage
The change of water from the ground
into water vapour in the air. (liquid to
gas). This is caused by the heat/energy
from the sun.
A store of water held below the surface 13.Throughflow
in the area above rock level.
Water held on the surface in lakes,
ponds and puddles.
12. Percolation The downwards flow of water through
cracks and joints in underlying rock.
Flow dependent on rock type (porosity,
pervious). Impermeable rocks such as
granite don’t allow percolation
The movement of water downwards
through top soil. Influenced by gravity
(happens after infiltration)
Amount of discharge from the drainage
14. Channel Flow basin to a larger body of water (river).
OUTPUT Water leaving the drainage basin in the
way is called run-off
 WAT E R CY CL E FE AT UR E : DR AI NAG E B ASI N
(TYPES OF RAINFALL)

CONVECTION OROGRAPHIC CYCLONIC

• most common process for rainfall • air is forced to rise over a barrier • warm air, which is lighter and less
• common in tropical areas (& UK • the leeward (downwind) slope receives dense, is forced to rise over cold
Summer) little rain (rain shadow effect) denser air
• Often heavier rainfall
Rainfall heaviest in the ITCZ (intertropical convergence zone). MORE HEAT = MORE CONVECTION = MORE PRECIPITATION

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-PRECIPITATION: saturation point with relative humidity of 100%, condensation nuclei (dust) form droplets in clouds,
temperature below dew point
 WAT E R CY CL E FE AT UR E : DR AI NAG E B ASI N
(FACTORS AFFECTING RAIN FALL & EVAPOTRANSPIRATION)

TEMPERATURE/CLIMATE: rate of evaporation increases with

temperature. More daylight hours and sun intensity (e.g. towards

TRANSPIRATION
equator) = more evaporation. EVT removes near to 100% of
annual precipitation in arid & semi-arid areas

VEGETATION TYPE/COVER:
transpiration increases with

TRANSPIRATION

EVAPORATION
vegetation cover. Dependent
on season and type of cover
(vegetation with a low albedo,
dark forests, absorb more WIND: increases the rate of EVT by
solar radiation – increased reducing the humidity needed for air
evaporation). to reach saturation point

SOIL MOISTURE
Groundwater recharge
CONTENT: determines the
amount of water available
for transpiration. Dependant
on soil and rock permeability
 1
WAT E R CY CL E FE AT UR E : DR AI NAG E B ASI N
(ADDITIONAL INFLUENCING FACTORS- SHAPE, RELIEF, CLIMATE, LAND USAGE)

HUMAN IMPACTS
• Over-abstraction: demand for water exceeds available amount during a certain period. Common in
areas of low rainfall with high population density, or areas that rely heavily on agriculture/industrial
activity
• Deforestation: common in tropical rainforests. - the process of clearing forest areas grow urban areas,
obtain resources (logging, palm oil) or graze cattle. Less water is able to evaporate from the area and
return to the atmosphere, increasing surface runoff and river/stream flow.
• Afforestation: potential solution to the damage caused by deforestation. LONG TERM: slows surface
run off and increases infiltration. SHORT TERM: process of planting young trees can increase surface
runoff, planting equipment can damage soil integrity, 30+ years before land can return to normal
• Urbanisation: replacing land with impermeable materials inhibits percolation and increases river
discharge (flash floods likely)

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY: There ARE sustainable ways to use land that can benefit the drainage system (SUDS)
GREEN ROOFS, PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS, INFILTRATION BASINS, HARVESTING RAINWATER, SOAK AWAY,
FILTER DRAINS, WETLANDS ETC.
 2
WAT E R CY CL E FE AT UR E : DR AI NAG E B ASI N
(ADDITIONAL INFLUENCING FACTORS- SHAPE, RELIEF, CLIMATE, LAND USAGE)

HUMAN IMPACTS CONTINUED

• Farming: irrigation causes a decline in water table (Texas aquifers + Aral Sea shrinking)

• Soil drainage: removing excess water from the soil through perforated tubes. Allows excess water to
drain away
Advantages Disadvantages
• benefits for soil that drains poorly • drains can increase the speed of throughflow, can
• land becomes easier to work increase the likelihood of flooding due to
• allows greater root penetration so that roots can increased flow in rivers, danger of flooding
travel further/faster • topsoil can be subject to wind erosion
• improved aeration • nitrate loss due to drainage can lead to
• machinery can work on land without causing eutrophication (enriching ponds/rivers too quickly
permanent damage can lead to fast growth, disturbing the balance of
• grazing of animals less damaging – soil impact organisms and quality of water
IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-Many of the human interventions on the drainage basin have socio-economic impacts as well as environmental. Think of the
economic and social impacts of flooding on a community. Compare this to the economic growth of farming an area.
 DR AI NAG E B ASI N WAT E R B AL ANCE / BUDGET
(POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION)

DEFINITION: the balance between INPUTS and OUTPUTS is known as the WATER
BALANCE/WATER BUDGET
EXAMPLE: the annual variations of the input and output of a river is known as the river’s regime. It’s
regime can vary in the short term due to heavy rainfall, or the long term due to a change in land use
around it

PRECIPITATION (P) = DISCHARGE (Q) + EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (E) ∓ CHANGES IN STORAGE

(S)
Potential Evapotranspiration (PEVT) is particularly important, as it reflects the climate of the area.
• It is the amount of water that could be evaporated or transpired from an area if there was sufficient
water available
• The relationship between precipitation and PEVT for a particular place over a year period is illustrated
by a soil moisture budget graph

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-SOIL MOISTURE BUDGETS allows us to assess the impact of soil moisture in different places
-useful for understanding how an ecosystem can become vulnerable, and predict any challenges for agriculture
Soil Moisture Budget Graph
 D R A I NAG E B A SI N F E AT U R E S: R I V E R S
(RUN OFF, RIVER REGIMES AND STORM HYDROGRAPHS)

KEY TERM DEFINITION GRAPHIC

DISCHARGE The river’s regime is measured in discharge
variation at a gauging station along it

BANKFULL Maximum discharge a river can carry without

flooding

BASE FLOW Average, day-to-day discharge of the river. The

result of a river being fed by groundwater flow
between periods of rain

LAG TIME Time between the peak rainfall and peak

discharge

STORM FLOW Discharge as a result of a storm. involves

overland flow, throughflow and groundwater
flow

STORM HYDROGRAPH A graph showing the discharge of a river over SEE NEXT SLIDE
the period of time in which a storm happens
 THE CARBON CYCLE

The Carbon Cycle stores, fluxes and circulation factors

 C ARBON CYCLE STORES

DEFINITION: the Carbon Cycle is the route carbon follows around the Earth in all its forms (primarily
CO2).
The Major Stores of Carbon
Lithosphere (limestone, fossil fuels, organic matter)
Hydrosphere (organic decay of organisms into oceans)
Biosphere (sum of all living matter, living vegetation, plant litter, soil humus, peat, animals)
Atmosphere (trace gases in the Earth’s atmosphere - CO2, CH4, present concentration of CO2 is higher
than it has been for 800,000 years, global warming attributed to industrial emissions into the atmosphere)

Stores - terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric Flux - transfer of carbon between these stores

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-CO2 is thought to have a profound effect on climate, but Carbon compounds also include methane, calcium carbonate,
hydrocarbons and biomolecules
-Stores measured in gigatonnes (Gt): 1Gt = 1 billions tonnes of carbon
 C ARBON CYCLE STORES

The Earth normally acts to create negative feedback, which means it stabilises in response to a flux to
maintain equilibrium
Positive feedback is a small change that amplifies a system to move away from equilibrium (e.g. a volcanic
eruption that releases a large amount of carbon from the mantle)

Largest store: Earth’s crust – Oceans – Fossil Fuels – Plants (soil/atmosphere) – Rivers :Smallest stores

Largest types of carbon: inorganic (rocks) – organic (plant matter) – gaseous :Smallest types of carbon

Fluxes: burning fossil fuels, respiration, plant litter fall, photosynthesis, plant respiration, volcanoes, ocean
loss and uptake, deforestation
IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-differences in the time CO2 is held in these stores, and the amount of carbon in flux between them
 MOVEMENT OF C ARBON

Geological carbon: results from the formation of sedimentary carbonate rocks (limestone/chalk) & oceans
Biologically derived carbon: stored in shale, coal & dead organisms

Bio-geochemical carbon cycle: combination of biological and geo-chemical processes

• Respiration: releasing CO2
• Decomposition: death/breakdown of organic matter to release CO2
• Combustion: fossil fuel burning, releasing greenhouse gases – industrial revolution significantly accelerated this
movement of carbon and depleted carbon stores

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-biological processes sequester (take up) carbon on land and in the oceans on shorter timescales.
 MOVEMENT OF C ARBON

Biological (Oceanic) carbon pump:

• water is able to dissolve CO2, which creates an
exchange between the atmosphere and ocean
• vertical deep mixing is used to describe the movement
of CO2 in the ocean, lead by thermohaline circulation
• organisms sequester carbon, when they die they sink to
the ocean floor, which removes CO2 from the
atmosphere
Thermohaline circulation: ocean current that maintains the
carbon pump.The flow is dependent on variations in
temperature, which give rise to changes in salt content and
density.

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-this part of the carbon cycle can lock up carbon for millions of years
 MOVEMENT OF C ARBON

Terrestrial: green plants, rapid exchange of carbon through respiration, bugs/beetles & herbivores eat these plants
and return it to the cycle through respiration
Soil: stores biological carbon as dead organic matter, released through decomposition (quick in soil, slow in tundra),
land use change can release this store rapidly
• Mangroves act as a huge carbon sink, soils contain 10% carbon and they sequester 1.5 metric tonnes per
hectare/yr. When cleared, 50X natural sequestration rate per 2% of global loss
• Tundra traps carbon for hundred of thousands of years. Global warming influences the sequestration rate

Volcanic activity: warming effect of emitted CO2 is counterbalanced by the large amount of sulphur dioxide that is
also released – reflection of radiation from the sun back into space, which cools the Earth’s lower atmosphere
• Mount Tambora eruption in 1815 dispersed ash around the world and lowered global temperatures, in an event
sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816.

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-how might a forest fire influence the terrestrial carbon sink?
 MOVEMENT OF C ARBON
Land use changes:
Farming
• practices such as ploughing can invert soil layers and decreased microbial activity
• this results in organic matter being broken down much more rapidly, releasing carbon into the atmosphere at a
faster rate than normal
• emissions from tractors and other machinery can also increase CO2 in the atmosphere
• Methane produced by livestock is also a large source of carbon emissions (accounted for 39% of the sectors total
greenhouse gas emissions in 2011)
Deforestation
• rainforests sequester carbon more than any other terrestrial source: they cover 17% of the Earth’s surface and
account for 30% of terrestrial sequestration
• logging operations remove huge areas of forest, often removing dense older trees that act as carbon sinks
• exposure of the forest floor to the sun can increase the decomposition rate of these organisms
IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-how might an undisturbed tropical forest behave differently to a forest 10 years after deforestation?
 MOVEMENT OF C ARBON
Urban growth/Urbanisation
• as cities grow, land use is transformed from natural vegetation/agriculture to industry and transport
• increasing population and change in cultural demands (fast food/cars/production of technology), all have an effect
on carbon emissions
• cities are projected to be responsible for 56% of global increase in carbon emissions from 2012-2030, with 10
individual cities contributing 10% of these
emissions (namely, North America, China, India)

There is though to be a link between accelerated

global warming and industrial human behaviours
However, it is important to understand
climate as cyclical
 EFFECTS OF THE CHANGING C ARBON BUDGET

There is natural greenhouse effect caused by solar radiation, which plays a vital role for the temperature on earth

Some radiation released naturally into the atmosphere

is trapped and sent back to Earth by greenhouse gases

The enhanced greenhouse effect is influenced by human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation,,
which traps a greater amount of heat
This creates a chain of events, whereby warmer temperatures increase evaporation, increasing atmospheric water
vapour, creating more cloud cover and trapping more heat within the atmosphere
Warmer temperatures can have a devastating impact on many other systems on Earth…
 EFFECTS OF THE CHANGING C ARBON BUDGET

IMPACT ON THE LAND

Albedo effect: the reflectiveness of the Earth’s surface is vital for maintaining global temperatures
• melting artic ice due to increasing global temperatures = less reflection of solar radiation = further temperature
increase
• This is an example of POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Arctic amplification: arctic warming 2X faster than average, as well as melting

permafrost (a large carbon sink) and damage to the arctic ecosystem
(plants and animals in the arctic must now compete with others that
previously could not survive in this climate)
• HOWEVER this could lead to more coverage on reflective surfaces,
reducing albedo, increasing the store of carbon (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK)
 EFFECTS OF THE CHANGING C ARBON BUDGET

IMPACT ON THE OCEANS

Ocean acidification: dissolving carbon dioxide in the oceans creates carbonic acid, which makes the ocean less and
less alkaline
• changing acidity levels in the ocean affects coral reefs by stripping away the calcium carbonate in its shell-like
composition.
• coral reefs provide an environment for various fish and animals that in turn provide food and livelihood for
millions of people
• acidification threatens the biodiversity of coral reefs, and their destruction could also remove an important
barrier for the impact of sea level rise
Ocean warming: warmer oceans could decrease the abundance of biodiversity in the ocean
• phytoplankton need cool, nutrient-rich waters to thrive: warmer oceans could impact their
ability to sequester carbon from the atmosphere
• HOWEVER, an increase in CO2 also works in favour for phytoplankton growth
• warming kills the algae that coral require to grow, leading to coral bleaching and death
 EFFECTS OF THE CHANGING C ARBON BUDGET

IMPACT ON THE OCEANS

Melting sea ice: melting sea ice reduces the amount of albedo that is able to take place, which in turn warms the
ocean further
• sea ice provides a unique habitat for the whole arctic food chain. Its will melting alae, krill, fish, seals, walruses and
polar bears in turn
Sea level rise: caused by melting terrestrial ice and
thermal expansion
• countries most in danger from rising sea levels:

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-these processes may naturally occur due to the fluctuation of global temperatures over time
-HOWEVER, they are happening at a faster rate than predicted due to human intervention
 EFFECTS OF THE CHANGING C ARBON BUDGET

IMPACTS ON THE CLIMATE

A warmer climate will have implications for human activities such as farming
Precipitation is projected to increase in Northern Europe and decrease in Southern Europe, which could have huge
impacts on food supply
The impacts on the land of these changes are unpredictable. For example:
• There are arguments that Sahara expansion due to a warmer climate could increase its range to the south,
reducing rainforests in the Congo basin
• OR Sarah expansion could offer more fertile land, expanding the rainforests

Extreme weather events at all ends of the

spectrum are also likely to increase in intensity
and frequency (drought, flooding, hurricanes/
cyclones, tsunamis)
WATER, CARBON, CLIMATE

Impacts & mitigation for changes to the water and carbon cycles
 WHERE DO THE WATER AND C ARBON CYCLE MEET?

Where do these two cycles meet?

• Carbon is found in every living organism, in many forms (methane, CO2, organic matter)
• Carbon is moved from hydrosphere to atmosphere (and back again) by the hydrological cycle

Any changes to the water cycle will effect and change the carbon cycle

WATER CYCLE CARBON CYCLE

Held in stores Held in stores
Closed system Closed system
FLUXES: melting, freezing, condensation, evaporation, FLUXES: burning fossil fuels, respiration, plant litter fall,
sublimation and deposition photosynthesis, plant respiration, volcanoes, ocean loss
and uptake, deforestation
IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-The water cycle is a key component of the carbon cycle
-positive feedback situations will have an effect on both cycles
 HUMAN ACTIVITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Although the amount of carbon moves around a closed cycle, global warming effects take place when this carbon is
released from stores at a faster rate than is normal for the cycle. As CO2 concentrations rise to accelerate the
greenhouse effect, temperatures rise.

HUMAN ACTIVITY & BEHAVIOURS are responsible for the accelerated carbon budget
• Increased global temperatures
• Extreme weather patterns (drought/flooding/cyclones)
that threaten land use
• Burning of fossil fuels due to demand for fuel
• Deforestation due to demand for food and resources
 MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION

Mitigation: strategies that aim to reduce the severity of climate change

Adaptation: strategies that adopt new ways of living with the outcomes of climate change
 Mitigation: strategies that aim to reduce the severity of climate change
Adaptation: strategies that adopt new ways of living with the outcomes of climate change
 ADAPTATION STRATEGIES

Green water management: sustainable irrigation systems, recycling water for use in agriculture, reduce water usage
(shorter showers!)
Land-use adaptation: managing what land is used for to avoid flood disaster e.g. not building on flood plains or high-
risk areas
Resilient agricultural systems: reduced or no ploughing, using less or eco-friendly fertilisers, conserving and reusing
water, drought-resistant crops (expensive)
Aerosol management: using less aerosols that contain dangerous compounds for the ozone HOWEVER sulphur
aerosols can also help to reflect more solar radiation
 MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Carbon taxation: taxing carbon proportional to carbon emissions HOWEVER is this effective for large TNC’s that
have the money to pay these fines?
Afforestation: restoring damages made by deforestation by replanting young trees. Prevention of soil erosion and
maintains carbon sink/stores HOWEVER takes time for changes/effects to be seen
Renewable energy switching: switching from dependence on fossil fuels to renewable energies such as solar, wind &
biomass. Majority from nuclear and HEP. Evolution of renewable energy generation in the UK

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
ACTIVITY: sort definitions into mitigation or adaptation
-which strategies are more effective?
 MITIGATING HUMAN IMPACTS
(PALM OIL CASE STUDY)

Palm oil is found in many products that require oil to make:

pizza bases, biscuits, Nutella, bread, soap, instant noodles, biofuel
• Indonesia & Malaysia largest producer, with emissions from its
production/treatment overtaking USA emissions temporarily in
2015
• In Indonesia alone 146 football pitches of rainforest are currently
being destroyed every hour

Environmental devastation is being wreaked in Indonesia by illegal deforestation,

industrial-scale draining of peat swamps, and manmade forest fires
In 2011, a Forest moratorium (ban) was introduced to reduce deforestation,
however illegal logging still remains
Eliminating the rich biodiversity of the rainforest, displacing local people, and killing
and brutalising wildlife in order to create a sterile palm monoculture
 MITIGATING HUMAN IMPACTS
(PALM OIL CASE STUDY)

Once a country is developed, environmental concerns become more important

In 2017, Indonesia saw a 60% drop in tree cover loss in forests compared with 2016
A difference in CO2 emissions from forest loss equivalent to 0.2 gigatons (about the same emissions released from
burning over 199 billion pounds of coal)
BUT how long will this recovery take? https://news.mongabay.com/2019/02/
forest-soils-take-longer-to-recover-from-fires-and-logging-than-previously-tho
ught-study/
Effects mitigated in large due to pressure from environmental groups such as
WWF and Greenpeace
• think about social media impact of Iceland boycotting palm oil
• donations to these organisations go directly to action

IMPORTANT TAKEAWAY:
-what happens to the country once the economic benefits of deforestation are taken away?
ACTIVITY: investigate and weigh up and positive and negative impacts of deforestation
 COMB ATING CLIMATE CHANGE

The Paris Agreement brings all nations together towards combating climate change and adapt to its effects
Long-term temperature goal: a goal of limiting global temperature increase to well below 2 degrees, while pursuing
efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees
Sinks and reservoirs: encourages Parties to conserve and enhance sinks and reservoirs of GHG’s including forests
Loss and damage: the Paris Agreement recognizes the importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and
damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and slow onset
events, and the role of sustainable development in reducing the risk of loss and damage
Climate change education: training, public awareness,/advertisement public participation and public access to
information