Surveying Terms

Instructed by:
Sohail Manzoor Tarar

Department of
mining engineering,
University of engineering &
technology, lahore
 Surveying Terms
 Surveying
Surveying is related with the determination of relative location of points on or near the surface of
earth. It is the art of
• Measuring horizontal and vertical distances between points/objects
• Measuring angles between lines
• Determining the direction of lines, and
• Establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements
 The process of surveying may be divided into
 Field work of taking measurements, and
 Office work of computing & drawing necessary information that includes mathematical
calculations.
 Plane Surveying
That type of surveying in which the mean surface of he earth is considered as a plane or in which
its spheroidal shape is neglected, is generally defined as plane surveying.
 Geodetic Surveying
The type of surveying which takes into account the shape of the earth is defined as geodetic
surveying.
 Surveying Terms
 Azimuth
The angle to a line of sight, measured clockwise from (usually) a north meridian.
 Backsight
A backsight is a reading taken on a position of known coordinate(s). Since a survey
progresses from a point of known position to points of unknown position, a backsight is a
reading looking "backward" along the line of progress. The first reading of almost any
survey job should be a backsight onto a fixed point of reference, usually a benchmark of
some sort.
 Baseline
A baseline is a line used for reference in a survey job. It is often a centerline or a street line.
A baseline is not necessarily straight; e.g., the centerline of a street or pipeline will often
curve. The important aspect is that the baseline can be precisely located, then used for
referencing other measurements on the job site. Selection of a baseline is entirely arbitrary.
However, judicious selection can make the rest of the job much easier.
 Benchmarks
A benchmark (BM) is permanent marker (usually a bronze disk) at a point of determined
location (elevation and possibly horizontal coordinates). In a less formal sense, it is a point
of fixed location (such as a mark on a bridge abutment, a foundation, or a rock face). It can
be used as a reference point for surveys in its locality. Descriptions of benchmark locations
and their elevations are published by government agencies.
 Surveying Terms
 Booking Values
Booking simply means "entering the field data in the field book". A format appropriate
for the type of survey should be followed to make interpretation and retrieval easy.
 Breakpoints
A breakpoint is a point where a change in some parameter of interest occurs. In
surveying, breakpoints are usually associated with changes in slope.
 Control Points
Control Points are fixed points of known coordinates. Such information can give only
elevation or can include all coordinates. Control points are determined by high-
accuracy surveys.
 Contour
A contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. The
corresponding line on the map is called a contour line.
 Datum
A datum is a fixed starting point of a scale. For example, the datum-level for elevation
is typically taken as mean sea level. The datum for latitude is the prime meridian
(through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England). Every datum is arbitrary.
However, judicious selection of a datum can make life easier.
 Surveying Terms
 Electronic Distance Measurement, EDM
EDM is a relatively new technique that is still evolving and improving. It
was first introduced in 1948 by Swedish physicist Erik Bergstrand. His
device used visible light and could accurately measure distances up to 25
miles at night. First introduced in 1957, microwave instruments can be
used day or night.
Current devices are either electro-optical instruments, which use laser or
infrared light, or microwave instruments. The former requires a passive
reflector at the opposite end of the line, while the latter method requires
two identical instruments.
 Elevation
The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below some
arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.
 Surveying Terms
 Field Notes
Field notes are a permanent record of field procedures and the data collected in those procedures. Field notes should be
made carefully. It is a common tendency to crowd information onto the pages. Paper is cheap. Information isn't. Do not
crowd information onto the page. Make entries distinct so that you will be able to retrieve what you went out to find.
• Use a medium-hardness pencil to obtain a clean, clear marking of data.
• Print all entries neatly. Usage of case should be consistent throughout.
• All computations should be checked and signed by the members of the survey team.
• Sketches should be drawn to approximate scale with care taken to preserve the relative positions and orientations
of features.
• Orient the sketch so that North will be toward the top of the page. Always include an arrow indicating North on the
sketch.
• Straightedges and curve templates are recommended for all line work. The improvement in clarity is worth the
additional time required to make the sketch neatly.
• Notes that are copied (from another page or any other source) must be clearly labeled as copied. It is unethical to
represent copies as field notes.
• Note takers should verify all data by repeating it as it is written down. The team member making the measurements
should listen as the numbers are called back and confirm their accuracy.
• Record data with appropriate precision. For example, if a length is measured to the hundredth of a foot, write it that
way. Do not drop trailing zeros, etc., that communicate the precision of the measurement.
• Enter data in the order in which they are collected to preserve the interdependencies of the measurements.
• If a page is to be "scrapped", write VOID across it, along with a diagonal line. Include a reference to the page
where the data can now be found.
 Surveying Terms
 Foresight
A foresight is a reading taken on a position of unknown coordinate(s). Since a survey progresses
from a point of known position to points of unknown position, a foresight is a reading looking
"forward" along the line of progress.
 Grade or Gradient
The grade or gradient of a line is its slope, or rate of ascent or descent.
 Level Surface
A level surface is a curved surface every element of which is normal to the plumb line. It is
parallel with the mean spheroidal surface of the earth. A body of still water provides the best
example.
 Horizontal plane
A horizontal plane is a plane tangent to a level surface.
 Horizontal line
A horizontal line is a line tangent to a level surface. In surveying, it is commonly understood that
a horizontal line is a straight line.
 Horizontal angle
A horizontal angle is an angle formed by the intersection of two lines in a horizontal plane.
 Surveying Terms
 Leveling
The vertical distance between two points is termed as the difference in elevation.
The operation of measuring the difference in elevation is called as leveling.
 Magnetic Declination
Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle between true north (i.e., the
geographic meridian) and magnetic north (i.e., the magnetic meridian).
There are two conventions for specifying the angle. One is to indicate the
magnitude (e.g., 6o) and direction as E or W of north. The other considers positive
values to be toward the east and negative values to be toward the west. Magnetic
declination is dynamic. It changes over time as the earth's magnetic field changes.
 Meridian
A north-south reference line. It may be taken through the position of the
instrument, or, in special cases, through a reference point (such as the Royal
Observatory in Greenwich, England, which designates the Prime Meridian - 0o
longitude).
 Surveying Terms
 Occupied Point
The physical point over which the instrument (level, transit, total station, etc.) is set up. Often
abbreviated in notes as OC.
 Orders of Surveys
The order of a survey is a way of expressing the accuracy of the work. The order of the survey can
have two levels of designators, namely, Order and Class. Order of Survey can be First-order Class
I, First-order Class II, Second-order Class I, Second-order Class II, Third-order.
 Pacing
Pacing is a "quick and dirty" method for estimating distances. One simply walks from one point to
another, counting steps. Knowing the length of one's step allows a quick estimation of the
distance. With practice, pacing estimates will typically be accurate to within 2%. Pacing is most
reliable on even terrain without obstructions. The more uneven or unstable the surface (such as
plowed ground or loose sand), the lower the accuracy. Pacing upslope tends to shorten the step
and pacing downslope tends to lengthen the step. If better accuracy is required, use another
method.
 Plumb Bob
A plumb bob is carefully machined, pointed weight that is suspended with a string. It is used to
indicate a (local) vertical line through the point of suspension. Plumb bobs are commonly used for
locating an instrument precisely over a fixed point or to project a vertical line between a tape and
a point on the ground.
 Surveying Terms
 Reduction of Notes/Data
"Reducing notes" or "Reduction of data" is the process of extracting the
desired information from the field notes. This is usually done in the office,
but portions may need to be done in the field to check the accuracy of work
before leaving the site.
 Rod
A rod is essentially a stick with precise markings on it. A variety of rods are
available, which have specialized markings for various tasks.
 Sideshot or Intermediate Foresight
A shot onto an unknown point which is not a station on the traverse.
Sideshots (or intermediate foresights) are booked in the same way as regular
foresights onto traverse stations, but are not included in the calculations for
vertical error of closure.
 Surveying Terms
 Sketch
• A good sketch is invaluable. It will help to explain the job and show the orientations of various important
features. It is definitely worth taking a few minutes to produce a good sketch.
• When you arrive at the job site, size up the whole thing. How is the job situated with respect to
permanent features in the area (roads, buildings, streams, fences, trees, etc.)? Begin by noting the
permanent (or nearly so) features around the perimeter (and within) the job site. Drawing these provides
a "frame" for the rest of the sketch. Then draw in the details of the job site. If greater detail is needed
than can be shown at that scale, use auxiliary sketches (on following pages, if necessary) to get the
important features recorded.
• Always make the sketch with North at the top of the page. Put an arrow with an "N" on the sketch to
indicate North. Include the scale of the drawing. Be reasonably precise.
• Since every survey job involves a sequence of measurements, you must indicate what you use for
reference points. THESE ARE IMPORTANT! The survey is worthless if it cannot be repeated, and it
cannot be repeated if the reference points are not identified explicitly! Detailed descriptions of each
reference point must be included with the sketch.
• How detailed? The description must contain enough information that someone else, who is not at all
familiar with the site, could locate the exact points with relative ease. Since many of the measurements
will be made to the hundredth (or even thousandth) of a foot, the descriptions must be very clear. There
is no room for ambiguity!
• One advantage of doing a proper sketch is that it forces you to look at the whole job before you start
taking measurements. Looking over the job site, you will be able to plan your survey to make the
strongest set of measurements with the least amount of effort. A few minutes invested up front can save a
lot of time later on.
 Surveying Terms
 Staking
The placement of markers on a site to identify certain locations (such as the
corners of a building, the right-of-way of a road, the extent of the slope faces
of a dam, etc.) with corresponding information (such as cut or fill for
earthmoving) is the process of staking out a project. It is the transferal of
information from the plan to the actual site --- in a manner that the work
crews will understand and use. It is therefore very important that the
information be as simple and as clear as possible. Staking must often be done
several times during a project as various phases of the work will "erase" these
temporary markers.
 Stations
The term station refers to a point on a baseline that is at a known distance
from a starting/reference point. The term "station" is also used more loosely
to indicate any point used in a survey, such as benchmarks and turning points.
As in so many aspects of language, context is important.
 Surveying Terms
 Tapes/Taping
A tape is a flexible device used for measuring linear distances. There are tapes made
of many materials, such as cloth, kevlar, steel, and invar. The most common tape used
by surveyors is the steel tape. Standard lengths are 100 feet (for English unit surveys)
or 30 meters (for SI unit surveys).
• Tapes are usually marked at every foot or meter. At the ends of the tape, there will
be finer divisions (tenths/hundredths of a foot, or decimeters/centimeters). Tapes
are called "add" tapes if the finer divisions are in a major unit beyond the ends of
the regular length, e.g., beyond the zero and 100-ft marks of an English tape. If,
on the other hand, the divisions are marked inside the last major units, the tape is
called a "cut" tape. E.g., the decimeter/centimeter divisions are marked between
the zero and one-meter marks and between the ninety-nine and one hundred meter
marks.
• For high precision surveys, invar tapes are useful. Invar is a nickel-steel alloy that
has a coefficient of thermal expansion of 2.0x10-7 to 5.5x10-7 per °Fahrenheit.
Regular steel tapes have a coefficient of thermal expansion of 64.5x10-7 per
°Fahrenheit, or 116x10-7 per °Celsius.
 Surveying Terms
 Traverse
A traverse is a series of consecutive line segments whose lengths and directions
are determined by field measurements. A closed traverse either closes back upon
its starting point, or begins and ends on stations of known positions. An open
traverse does not close on either itself or a station of known position. As such, an
open traverse does not provide any means for checking for errors and mistakes.
Open traverses should generally be avoided. If an open traverse must be used, the
procedure should be repeated to provide a check of accuracy.
 Turning Point
A turning point is a station, either temporary or permanent, that is used as a pivot
between sequential instrument positions. Since a turning point is used to extend
the primary survey, its elevation must be precisely recoverable (at least for the
time it takes to move the instrument and take a backsight on it). A spot on rough
ground (e.g., a plowed field) is unacceptable. A mark on pavement, a rock face,
top of a fence post or fire hydrant would be good. Surveyors will often carry
stakes that can be driven into the ground to provide a temporary solid surface for
a turning point.
 Surveying Terms
 Vertical Error of Closure
The error of closure of a leveling survey refers to the cumulative error of the
entire circuit. If a circuit is run from a point of known (or assumed) elevation
back to that point, then the starting elevation and the ending elevation should
be the same. In actual practice, errors are made in measurements that result
in a discrepancy between the two values. That discrepancy, expressed as a
raw vertical distance (in units such as feet or meters), is the error. The
allowable error in any such survey depends on the level of accuracy required
for the job.
 Vertical line
A vertical line is a line perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. A plumb
line is an example.
 Vertical plane
A vertical plane is a plane of which a vertical line is an element.