Chapter 4: Pavement Design

Pavement Types:

Flexible Pavement – is constructed with asphaltic

cement and aggregates and usually consists of
several layers.
Rigid Pavement – is constructed with Portland
cement concrete (PCC) and aggregates.
The AASHTO Flexible-Pavement Design Procedure

*Serviceability Concept

Present Serviceability Index (PSI) = pavement

performance, at any point in time.

Terminal Serviceability Index (TSI) = a point in time

when pavement can no longer perform in a
serviceable manner.
AASHO Road Thickness Index:

Thickness Index = 0.44D1 + 0.14D2 + 0.11D3

Where:

D1 = surfacing thickness, inches (2 in. minimum)

D2 = base thickness, inches (3 in. minimum)
D3 = subbase thickness, inches

“thickness index is the same as the structural

number”
Flexible-Pavement Design Equation
log 10 [PSI /( 2.7)]
log 10 W18  Z R S O  9.36[log 10 ( SN  1)]  0.20   2.32 log 10 M R  8.07
0.40  [1094 /( SN  1) ]
5.19

Where:

W18 = is the 18-kip equivalent single-axle load.

ZR = reliability (z-statistic from the standard normal curve.
SO = is the overall standard deviation of traffic.
SN = is the structural number.
ΔPSI = is the loss in serviceability from when the pavement
is new until it reaches its TSI.
MR = is the soil resilient modulus of the subgrade in psi.
W18: Automobiles and truck traffic provide a wide
range of vehicle axle types and axle loads. The
problem of handling mixed traffic loading is solved
with the adoption of a standard 18-kip (80.1-kN)-
equivalent single-axle load (ESAL).

ZR: Defined as the probability that serviceability will

be maintained at adequate levels from a user’s
point of view throughout the design life of the
facility.
SO: The overall standard deviation takes into
account the designers’ inability to accurately
estimate the variation in future 18-kip-equivalent
axle loads, and the statistical error in the equations
resulting from variability in materials and
construction practices. Typical values are in order of
0.30 to 0.50.
MR: The soil resilient modulus is used to reflect the
engineering properties of the subgrade (the soil).
Measurement of the resilient modulus is not
performed by all transportation agencies; therefore,
a relationship between MR and the California
Bearing Ratio, CBR, has been determined. The CBR
is the ratio of the load-bearing capacity of the soil to
the load-bearing capacity of a high-quality
aggregate, multiplied by 100.

MR = 1500 x CBR
SN: The structural number represents the overall structural
requirement needed to sustain the design’s traffic loadings.

SN = a1D1 + a2D2M2 + a3D3M3

Where:

a1, a2, and a3 = are structural-layer coefficients of the

wearing surface, base, and subbase layers, respectively.
D1, D2, and D3 = are the thicknesses of the wearing surface,
base, and subbase layers (in inches), respectively.
M2 and M3 = are drainage coefficients for the base and
subbase, respectively.
Example Problem:

A pavement is to be designed to last 10 years. The initial PSI

is 4.2 and the TSI (the final PSI) is determined to be 2.5. The
subgrade has a soil resilient modulus of 15,000 psi (103.43
MPa). Reliability is 95% with an overall standard deviation
of 0.4. For design, the daily car, pickup truck, and light van
traffic is 30,000, and the daily truck traffic consists of 1000
passes of single-unit trucks with two single axles and 350
passes of tractor semi-trailer trucks with single, tandem,
and triple axles. The axle weights are:
cars, pickups, light vans = two 2,000-lb single axles
single-unit truck = 8,000-lb steering, single axle
= 22,000-lb drive, single axle
Tractor semi-trailer truck = 10,000-lb steering, single axle
= 16,000-lb drive, tandem axle
= 44,000-lb trailer, triple axle

M2 and M3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the

pavement structure. Four inches of hot mix asphalt is to be
used as the wearing surface and 10 inches of crushed
stone as the subbase. Determine the thickness required
for the base if soil cement is the material to be used.
Example Problem: A flexible pavement is constructed with
4 in. (10.16 cm) of hot mix asphalt wearing surface, 8 in.
(20.32 cm) of emulsion/aggregate-bituminous base, and 8
in. (20.32 cm) of crushed stone subbase. The subgrade has
a soil resilient modulus of 10,000 psi (68.95 MPa), and M2
and M3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the pavement
structure. The overall standard deviation is 0.5, the initial
PSI is 4.5, and the TSI is 2.5. The daily traffic has 1080 20-kip
(89.0-kN) single axles, 400 24-kip (106.8-kN) single axles,
and 680 40-kip (177.9-kN) tandem axles. How many years
would you estimate this pavement would last (i.e., how
long before its PSI drops below a TSI of 2.5) if you wanted to
be 99% confident that your estimate was not too high, and
if you wanted to be 95% confident that your estimate was
not too high?
Pavement System Design: Principles for Rigid
Pavements

Calculation of Rigid-Pavement Stresses and

Deflections (H. M. Westergaard Equations):
p

k
Where: k = is the modulus of subgrade reaction
in pounds per cubic inch (pci)
p = is the reactive pressure in psi
Δ = is the slab deflection in inches
Ionnides, Thompson, and Barenberg Equations:

For the Interior Loading:

3P(1   )   2l   3P(1   )  a 
2

i  ln    0.5      
2h 2
 a  64h 2
l

P    a  5  a  
2
  1 
i  2 
1   ln        
8kl   2    2l  4  l  

Where: σi = is the bending stress in psi
P = is the total load in lb
μ = is the Poisson ratio
h = is the slab thickness in inches
k = is the modulus of subgrade reaction in
pci
a = is the radius of circular load in inches
γ = is the Euler’s constant = 0.577215
l = is the radius of relative stiffness (a
measure of the slab thickness)
 0.25
 Eh3

l   
 12(1   )k 
2

Where: E = is the modulus of elasticity in psi

Δi = is the slab deflection in inches
P
a
p

Where: P = is the load in pounds

p = is the tire pressure in psi
For the Edge Loading:
 P    Eh 3
 
 e  0.529(1  0.54 ) 2  log 10  4   0.71
h   ka  

 P 
 e  0.408(1  0.4  ) 2 
 kl 
For the Corner Loading:
3P   al  
0.72

 c  2 1    
h   l  

P   al 
c  2 1.205  0.69 l 
kl   

Where: al = is the distance to the point of

action of the resulting load on a common angle
bisection at the slab corner and is equal to a 2 .
Example Problem:

A 15,000-lb (66.72-kN) wheel load is placed on a

Portland cement concrete slab that is 10.0 in. (254.0
mm) thick. The concrete has a modulus of elasticity
of 4.5 million psi (31.0 GPa) with a Poisson ratio of
0.18. The modulus of subgrade reaction is 200 pci
(54.3 N/cm3). Tire pressure is 100 psi (689.5 kPa).
Using the revised Westergaard equations, calculate
the stress and deflection if the load is placed on the
corner of the slab.
Example Problem:

A 12-in. (30.48-cm) pavement slab has a modulus of

elasticity of 4 million psi (27.58 GPa) and a Poisson
ratio of 0.40. The pavement is on a soil with a
modulus of subgrade reaction equal to 300 pci
(81.45 N/cm3). A wheel load of 9000 lb (22.86 kN) is
applied and the radius of circular load is 5 in. (12.7
cm). What would the interior and edge stresses be,
and what would the interior and edge slab
deflections be? (Use the revised Westergaard
equations.)
The AASHTO Rigid-Pavement Design Procedure

log 10 PSI /(3.0)

log 10 W18  Z R S O  7.35log 10 ( D  1)  0.06 

1  1.624 x10 7 /( D  1) 8.46 

 (4.22  0.32TSI)log 10 

Sc' Cd D 0.75  1.132  

 215.63 J D 0.75
 [18.42 /( Ec / k ) 0.25

]} 
Where: W18 = is the 18-kip-equivalent single-axle load is the
same concept as that discussed in the flexible-pavement
design procedure.
ZR = is the reliability (z-statistic from the standard normal
curve.)
SO = is the overall standard deviation of the traffic.
D = is the slab thickness in inches.
TSI = is the pavement’s terminal serviceability index.
ΔPSI = is the loss in serviceability from when the pavement
is new until it reaches its TSI.
S’c = is the concrete modulus of rupture in psi.
Cd = is a drainage coefficient.
J = is the load transfer coefficient.
Ec = is the concrete elastic modulus in psi
k = is the modulus of subgrade reaction.
Sc’: The concrete modulus of rupture is a measure of
the tensile strength of the concrete and is
determined by loading a beam specimen, at the
third points, to failure.

Cd: The drainage coefficient is slightly different from

those used in flexible-pavement design. In rigid-
pavement design, it accounts for the drainage
characteristics of the subgrade. A value of 1.0 for a
drainage coefficient represents a material with good
drainage characteristics.
J: The load transfer coefficient is a factor that is
used to account for the ability of pavement to
transfer a load from one PCC slab to another across
the slab joints.

Ec: The concrete modulus of elasticity is derived

from the stress-strain curve as taken in the elastic
region.

k: The modulus of subgrade reaction depends upon

several different factors including the moisture
content and density of the soil.
Example Problem:

A rigid pavement is to be designed to provide a service life

of 20 years and has an initial PSI of 4.4 and a TSI of 2.5. The
modulus of subgrade reaction is determined to be 300 pci
(81.3 N/cm3). For design, the daily car, pickup truck, and
light van traffic is 20,000 and the daily truck traffic consists
of 200 passes of a single-unit truck with a single and
tandem axle, and 410 passes of a tractor semi-trailer truck
with a single, tandem, and triple axle. The weights are:
Cars, pickups, light vans = two 2-kip single axles
Single-unit truck = 10-kip steering, single axle
= 22-kip drive, tandem axle
Tractor semi-trailer truck = 12-kip steering, single axle
= 18-kip drive, tandem axle
= 50-kip trailer, triple axle

Reliability is 95%, overall standard deviation is 0.45, the

concrete’s modulus of elasticity is 4.5 million psi, the
concrete’s modulus of rupture is 900 psi, the load transfer
coefficient is 3.2. The drainage coefficient is 1.0. Determine
the required slab thickness.
Seatwork:

You have been asked to design the pavement for an access

highway to a major truck terminal. The design daily truck
traffic consists of the following:
Daily Count Axle Load
80 (single axle) 22,500 lb
570 (tandem axle) 25,000 lb
50 (tandem axle) 39,000 lb
80 (triple axle) 48,000 lb
The highway is to be designed with rigid pavement having
a modulus of rupture of 600 psi and a modulus of elasticity
of 5 million psi. The reliability is to be 95%, the overall
standard deviation is 0.4, the drainage coefficient is 0.9,
ΔPSI is 1.7 (with a TSI of 2.5), and the load transfer
coefficient is 3.2. The modulus of subgrade reaction is 200
pci. If a 20-year design life is to be used, determine the
required slab thickness.
Design Lane W18:
design - lane W18  PDL(directiona l W18 )

Proportion of Directional W18 Assumed to be in the

Design Lane
Number of Directional Proportion of Directional W18 in
Lanes the Design Lane (PDL)
1 1.00
2 0.80-1.00
3 0.60-0.80
4 0.50-0.75
Example Problem:

In 1986, a rigid pavement on a northbound section of interstate

highway was designed with a 12-in. PCC slab, an Ec of 6 x 106 psi,
a concrete modulus of rupture of 800 psi, a load transfer
coefficient of 3.0, an initial PSI of 4.5, and a terminal
serviceability index of 2.5. The overall standard deviation was
0.45, the modulus of subgrade reaction was 190 pci, and a
reliability of 95% was used along with a drainage coefficient of
1.0. The pavement was designed for a 20-year life, and traffic was
assumed to be composed entirely of tractor semi-trailer trucks
with one 16-kip single axle, one 20-kip single axle, and one 35-kip
tandem axle (the effect of all other vehicles was ignored). The
interstate has four northbound lanes and was conservatively
designed. How many tractor semi-trailer trucks, per day, were
assumed to be traveling in the northbound direction?
 Highway Drainage

Drainage refers to the system of providing ways to remove

water from a pavement.

• Pavement Cross Slopes

• Surface Runoff Quantities

Q  0.00278(C r IAd )
Where: Q = is the peak discharge in m3/s
Cr = is the runoff factor
I = is the rainfall intensity in mm/h
Ad = is the drainage area in hectares
Q: The peak discharge of water is the maximum expected
quantity of water that will accumulate at a particular
location for a given storm. The peak discharge is the water
that runs over the surface and is not absorbed by the soil
and vegetation.

Cr: The runoff factor accounts for the dissipated water

during a storm. During a storm, some of the water will
dissipate due to evaporation, transpiration, absorption by
vegetation, ponding, and percolation into the soil. The
runoff factor is the ratio that represents the proportion of
surface runoff to the total amount of water falling on the
area.
I: In order to determine the peak discharge of
water, information about the rainfall intensity is
needed. Some storms provide light rainfall for only
a few minutes whereas others provide heavy rain
for extended periods of time.

Ad: The drainage area is the total area from which

runoff can be expected. This area can be
determined from topographical maps, satellite
reconnaissance, or other sources.
Example Problem:

An engineer plans to install a culvert under a

collector-type highway to reduce flooding in the
area. The drainage area is 9 hectares of pastureland
in a rural residential area in central Pennsylvania.
Water in the drainage area flows on an approximate
5% slope for 1215 m before reaching the culvert.
Estimate the peak discharge that can be expected at
the culvert.
Basic Highway Culvert Design
Q  VAc

Where: Q = is the discharge in m3/s

V = is the water speed in m/s
Ac = is the cross-sectional area in m2
Example Problem:

In the previous problem, the peak discharge was

found to be 0.706 m3/s. It has been determined
that a water flow speed of 1.5 m/s is needed to
maintain scour velocity. Calculate the approximate
diameter of a circular culvert needed to carry 0.706
m3/s if the culvert is flowing full. Assume that the
flow in the culvert is not complex and water does
not pond at either end of the culvert.
Highway Drainage Ditch Design
Rh2 / 3 S 1 / 2
V
n

Where: V = is the water speed in m/s

S = is the slope of the channel in m/m
n = is the roughness coefficient
Rh = is the hydraulic radius
Ac
Rh 
WP
Where: Ac = is the area of cross section in m2
WP = is the wetted perimeter (the wetted
length in cross section in meters)
Example Problem:

A highway agency plans to construct a rock-lined

drainage channel next to a highway. The channel
will be rectangular in shape with 1.0-m bottom and
a water depth of 0.5 m. The slope of the channel is
determined to be 3.0%. Calculate the speed of the
water and the flow rate.
Example Problem:

A trapezoidal channel has a base of 2 m and 45-

degree walls. A smooth asphalt lining is used and
the channel slopes at 2.5%. If the water speed is
measured at 10 m3/s, what is the water depth in
the channel?
Inlets

Inlets are provided at regular intervals to collect

surface water and convey them to the storm
drains.

Inlet spacing should be calculated on the basis of

collection of runoff.

The distance of the first inlet from the crest is

calculated as follows:
10,000Qt
L
0.0028CiW
Where: L = distance of the first inlet from the crest,
m
Qt = maximum allowable flow, m3/s
C = composite runoff coefficient for
contributing drainage area
W = width of contributing drainage area, m
i = rainfall intensity for design frequency,
mm/h
Example Problem:

Compute the location of the first gutter inlet from

the crest, considering the following information:

Maximum allowable flow = 0.25 m3/s

Composite runoff coefficient = 0.45
Intensity of rainfall = 120 mm/h
Width of drainage area = 70 m