INTRODUCTION

NEED FOR ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES

Reduced CO2 Independence from fossil

emission fuels

More alternate energy,

less fossil fuels

Hybrid electric Batteries

vehicles Supercapacitors
Fuel cells

Advancement in
Electric energy storage
systems
 Batteries
Batteries convert the chemical energy contained
in its active materials directly into electric energy
by means of an electrochemical oxidation-
reduction (redox) reaction.

Type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons

from one material to another through an electric
circuit.

Heat engines vs. batteries

In a non-electrochemical redox reaction, such as rusting or burning, the transfer of
electrons occurs directly and only heat is involved.
As the battery electrochemically converts chemical energy into electric energy, it is
not subject, as are combustion or heat engines, to the limitations of the Carnot cycle
dictated by the second law of thermodynamics.

Batteries, therefore, are capable of having higher

energy conversion efficiencies.
Classification of batteries

Primary Cells or Batteries

These batteries are not capable of being easily or
effectively recharged electrically and,
hence, are discharged once and discarded.
ZINC CARBON (1.5V)
ALKALINE (1.5V)

Secondary or Rechargeable Cells or Batteries

These batteries can be recharged electrically, after discharge, to their original condition by
passing current through them in the opposite direction to that of the discharge current. They
are storage devices for electric energy and are known also as ‘‘storage batteries’’ or
‘‘accumulators.’’
LEAD ACID (2.0V)
NICKEL - CADMIUM (1.2V)
NICKEL - METAL HYDRIDE (1.2V)
LITHIUM – ION (3.3V)
 Series and parallel configurations

Serial connection

Adding cells in series

increases voltage;same
current

Parallel connection

Adding cells in parallel increases current ;

same voltage

Serial - Parallel connection

Commonly used configuration

2S2P
2 CELLS IN SERIES AND 2 IN PARALLEL
Cell designs
The cell consists of three major components:

1. The anode or negative electrode—the reducing or fuel electrode—which gives up electrons

to the external circuit and is oxidized during the electrochemical reaction.

2. The cathode or positive electrode—the oxidizing electrode—which accepts electrons from

the external circuit and is reduced during the electrochemical reaction.

3. The electrolyte—the ionic conductor—which

provides the medium for transfer of charge, as ions,
inside the cell between the anode and cathode.
 The electrolyte is typically a liquid, such as
water or other solvents, with dissolved salts, acids,
or alkalis to impart ionic conductivity.
 Some batteries use solid electrolytes, which
are ionic conductors at the operating temperature
of the cell.
Desirable properties of an anode Desirable properties of a cathode

Efficiency as a reducing agent An efficient oxidizing agent

High coulombic output (Ah/ g) Be stable when in contact with the electrolyte

Good conductivity Have a useful working voltage.

Stability and ease of fabrication

Desirable properties of electrolyte

Good ionic conductivity but not be electronically conductive

Nonreactivity with the electrode materials

little change in properties with change in temperature

Safety in handling
 Operation of a cell

Discharge
When the cell is connected to an external load, electrons flow
from the anode, which is oxidized, through the external load
to the cathode, where the electrons are accepted and the
cathode material is reduced.

The electric circuit is completed in the electrolyte by the flow

of anions (negative ions) to anode and cations (positive ions)
to the cathode.
Example
The discharge reaction can be written, assuming Zinc metal as the anode material and
a cathode material such as chlorine (Cl2), as follows:

Negative electrode: anodic reaction (oxidation, loss of electrons)

Zn → Zn2+ + 2e
Positive electrode: cathodic reaction (reduction, gain of electrons)
Cl2 + 2e → 2Cl -
Overall reaction (discharge):
Zn + Cl2 → Zn2+ + 2Cl- (ZnCl2 )
Charge
During the recharge of a rechargeable or storage cell, the current
flow is reversed and oxidation takes place at the positive electrode
and reduction at the negative electrode.

As the anode is, by definition, the electrode at which oxidation

occurs and the cathode the one where reduction takes place, the
positive electrode is now the anode and the negative the cathode.

In the example of the Zn/Cl2 cell, the reaction on charge can be written as follows:
Negative electrode: cathodic reaction (reduction, gain of electrons)
Zn2+ + 2e → Zn
Positive electrode: anodic reaction (oxidation, loss of electrons)
2Cl - → Cl2 + 2e
Overall reaction (charge):
Zn2+ + 2Cl- (ZnCl2 ) → Zn + Cl2
 THEORETICAL CELL VOLTAGE, CAPACITY, AND ENERGY

The theoretical voltage and capacity of a cell are a function of the anode and cathode
materials.

The standard potential of the cell is determined by the type of active materials contained in
the cell. It can be calculated from free-energy data or obtained experimentally.

Free Energy
Whenever a reaction occurs, there is a decrease in the free energy of the system, which is
expressed as
G0 = - nFE0
Obtained from
EMF Series !!!

where F = constant known as Faraday (approx =6,500 C or 26.8 Ah)

n= number of electrons involved in stoichiometric reaction
E0 = standard cell potential, V
One Faraday represents the magnitude of electric charge per mole of electrons.
This constant has a simple relation to two other physical constants: F = e N A
Standard cell potential : EMF series

Oxidation
potential is the
negative value
of reduction
potential
For our
example of
Zn/Cl2 cell
 Oxidation/Reduction Reactions

• “Redox” reactions involve electron transfer from

one species to another
Ox1 + Red2  Red1 + Ox2
• Ox1 + ne-  Red1 (Reduction ½ reaction)
• Red2  Ox2 + ne- (Oxidation ½ reaction)
• “Reducing agent” donates electrons (is oxidezed)
• “Oxidizing agent” accepts electrons (is reduced)
Theoretical Voltage

The standard potential of a cell can be calculated from the standard electrode potentials as
follows :

Anode Cathode
Standard cell potential
(oxidation potential) (reduction potential)

For example, in the reaction Zn + Cl2 → Zn2+ + 2Cl- (ZnCl2 )

the standard cell potential, E0 is:

Zn → Zn2 + + 2e -(-0.76 V) (negative value of the reduction potential)

Cl → 2Cl- - 2e 1.36 V
E0 2.12 V

The cell voltage is also dependent on other factors as expressed by the Nernst equation
• concentration
• temperature
Theoretical Capacity (Coulombic)
The theoretical capacity of a cell is determined by the amount of active materials in
the cell.
It is expressed as the total quantity of electricity involved in the electrochemical
reaction and is defined in terms of coulombs or ampere-hours.
The ‘‘ampere-hour capacity’’ of a battery is directly associated with the quantity of
electricity obtained from the active materials.

Theoretically 1 gram-equivalent weight of material will deliver 96,487 C or 26.8 Ah.

(A gram-equivalent weight is the atomic or molecular weight of the active material in
grams divided by the number of electrons involved in the reaction.)

The theoretical capacity of an electrochemical cell, based only on the active materials
participating in the electrochemical reaction, is calculated from the equivalent weight
of the reactants.

Hence, the theoretical capacity of the Zn/Cl2 cell is 0.394 Ah/g, that is,
Calculations

For Zn

(26.8 Ah/65.4 g) x 2
=0.82 Ah/g

For Cl2

(26.8 Ah/71.0 g) x 2
=0.75 Ah/g
Theoretical Energy

The capacity of a cell can also considered on an energy (watthour) basis by taking both
the voltage and the quantity of electricity into consideration. This theoretical energy
value is the maximum value that can be delivered by a specific electrochemical system:

Watthour (Wh) = voltage (V) x ampere-hour (Ah)

In the Zn/Cl2 cell example, if the standard potential is taken as 2.12 V, the theoretical
watthour capacity per gram of active material (theoretical gravimetric specific energy or
theoretical gravimetric energy density) is:

Specific Energy (Wh/g) = 2.12 V x 0.394 Ah/g = 0.835 Wh/g or 835 Wh/kg