Introduction:

The origins of modern humans can be explained by studying the

biological, social and cultural evolution.Biological evolution explains
the physical transformation of modern humans from hominids into
thinking modern humans or Homo sapiens sapiens. Aside from
biological evolution, modern humans also underwent social and
cultural evolution. Humans developed and modified their culture
through time as a respons to the threats and challenges posed by
their environment.The cultural evolution of humans also included the
social and political evolution of modern man. Since the hunting and
gathering stage up to the agricultural, industrial and post-industrial
stages, modern humans made significant sociocultural developments.
 SOCIOLOGY

CULTURAL SOCIAL
Evolutionary
Process

ANTHROPOLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGICAL
• Biological and cultural evolutions are key concepts in the study of the origins
of modern humans.
• Biological evolution refers to the changes modifications, and variations in the
genetics and inherited traits of biological populations from one generation to
another.
• Evolution is diverse and it occurs in different levels of the biological
population.
• Cultural evolution or sociocultural, on the other hand, refers to the changes or
development in cultures from a simple form to a more complex form of human
culture.
• Sociocultural evolution happens as a result of human adapatation to different
factors like climatic changes and population increase.
• Biological evolution is based on the theory of evolution that was introduced by
the famous English naturalist and geologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882).
• Darwin introduced the concept of evolution to explain the origins of modern
humans.
In his published work entitled On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859), Darwin wrote:

“Species are not immutable, but that those belonging to what are called the same
genera are lineal descendantsof some other and generally extinct species, in the
same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species” (Ember, Ember,
and Peregrine, 2002, p. 33).

Ember, Ember and Peregrine (2002) define natural selection this way:

“[It is the] outcome of processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a

particular enviroment. Traits that enhance survival and reproductive success
increase in frequency over time.”
According to Darwin, the environment favors certain organisms and those
organisms that survive can pass their traits.
Natural selection has tree important principles. These are variation
heritability, and differential reproductive success. Darwin's natural
selection hypothesized that:

1. Every species is made up of a variety of individuals wherein some

are better adapted to their environments compared to others.
2. Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can be
inherited
3. Organisms that have traits most suitable to their environment will
surive and transfer these variations to their offspring in subsequent
generations.
 FROM HOMINIDS TO HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS:
THE BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF MODERN HUMANS

• The evolutionary ladder illustrates the apelike ancestors of moderns humans at the base and
the modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) at the top.
• The transformation from apelike ancestors to modern humans occured after millions of years of
biological and cultural evolution.
• An apelike ancestors developed and eventually became modern humans.
• Artifacts and fossils are important sources of information in the reconstruction of human
evolution.
• Fossils refer to humans, plants and animal remains that have been preserved through time.
• Arifacts includes stone tools, metal tools, ceramics earthenware, burial jars and ornaments.
• Hominid is the general term used by scientists to categorize the group of ealy humans and
other human like creatures that can walk erect during the prehistotic times.
• There are four categories of hominids based on the age of the fossils that were found. These
are Sahhelanthropus, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Home.
• Australopithecus and Homo had the most numberof species based on the fossils and artifacts
that have been excavated by archaelogist.
• Australopithecus is the first stage while Homo is the last stage of human evolution.
 The Australopithecus, together with the Sahenlanthropus and Ardipithicus, are considered as the
prehuman stage, while the Homo is part of the human stage evolution.
Fossils of the Sahelanthropus, Australopithecus and Ardipithecus were all excavated in the African
continent.
After the Sahelanthropuus tchadensis came the Orrorin tugensis (5.7 millions years ago) and the
Ardipithecus family, which had two species namely the Ardiputhecus Kadabba and the Ardipithecus
ramidus. Ardipiithecus means “ape” , while ramidus means 'root”

Characteristics of Ardipithecus:

1. Height of about 4 feet

2. Weight of about 120 pounds
3. Skull size similar to an ape
4. Small brain
5. Biped (walks on two legs)
6. Lived in jungles and forest like the chimpanzees
1. Brain weight of 500 cubic centimeters (cc) or almost 1/3 of the size
of the modern human brain
2. Upright
3. Biped
4. Tool users only and not tool makers
5. Used sticks and stones for digging
6. Lived in small social groups
7. Distance of movement was estimated to be 15 kilometers (9.3
miles) or more to search stones to be used as tools
8. Food scavengers
9. Ate insects, eggs, plants, fruits, and sometimes meat
At present, there are six species of the Australopothecus and they are divided into
two major categories: the gracile and the robust. The gracile australopithecus had
small teeth and jaw. Included in this group are the Australopithecus anamensis.
Australopithecus afaranses, and the Australopithecus africanus. The robust
Australopithecus group, on the other hand, include the Autralopithecus
aethiopicus, Australopithecus robustus, and the Australopithecus boisie. These
Australopithecus had large teeth and jaws and muscular built.

The Australopithecus afaransis is considered as the common ancestor of

the Autralopithecus species, namely the Autralopithecus africanus,
Australopithecus robustus, and Australopithecus boisie. The 3.2 million- year old
Australopithecus afaransis fossil named “Lucy” was considered as one of modern
human's earliest ancestors annd remains as the most famous hominid fossil
discovered. Lucy was discovered in Hadar, Ehtopia in November 1974 by
paleoanthropologists led by Dr. Donald Johanson.
The Australopithecus disappeared in the evolutionary map after almost one million years. They were replaced
by a much more intellegent group of hominids that belonged to a new genus－the homo.The Homo are
classified as humans and not human like creatures because they had begger brains and were bipedal.
According to fossil evidences, the Homo first lived in Africa about 2.4 million years ago. The Homo species
included the Homo habilis (handy man), Homo erectus (upright man), and the Homo sapiens (wise man).

1. Height of about 3 to 4 feet

2. Brain size half the size of the modern human (700 cubic centemeters)
3. Made tools called Oldowan (name came from the place where they were
found--in Olduvai George, Tanzania) which were used as cutting tools and
made from volcanic stones
4. Used tools for hunting and food gathering
The Homo ergaster (1.8 million years ago) was the next Homo species
to flourish. It was from the species where Homo erectus came from.
The Homo erectus was estimaated to have lived from 1.8 million to
300,000 years ago. It had the following characteristics:

1. Brain size of 1,000 cc or about 2/3 of the modern human brain size
2. Height of about five feet
3. Walks upright
 The Homo erectus is believed to be more intellegent and more adpatable
compared to the Homo habilis.
 The Homo erectus also manifested cultural evolution because they used their
intellegence to invent and developed different technologies to respond to their
needs.
 The Homo erectus was the first Homo species to use fire and to live in caves and
small houses made of tree branches.
 It was also believed that the Homo erectus was the first Homo to use spoken
language.
 The Homo erectus fossil was first discovered in Africa.
 The first fossil in Asia was found in the Longgupo Cave in China.
The last genus in the evolution ladder of the Homo family was the Homo sapiens
(thinking man). Included in this species are the archaic Homo sapiens of Africa,
Homo heidelbergensis, Homo neanderthalensis and the Homo sapiens sapiens.
The Home sapiens are considered as modern human. Their physical anatomy is
very similar to the modern human beings that is why it is considered as the
species where all modern humans belong to. The characteristics of the Homo
sapiens include the following:

1. Large brain size (1,400 cc) that is almsot similar to the bran of modern
humans
2. Lived in shelters
3. Food gatherers
4. Ate plants and fruits
5. Hunted animals
6. Learned to gather and cook shellfish (164,000 years ago)
7. Used fire
8. Crafted metals
The Homo sapiens made sophisticated and smoothened tools and hadmore
developed shelters and advanced technology. They were able to make
different stone tools that include fishing tools (e.g. fish hooks), harpoons, bow
and arrows, spear throwers and sewing needles.

The Homo neandethanlensis and the Cro-Magnon were considered as

examples of the first group of Homo sapiens.

The Cro-Magno is the first fossil skeleton to be considered as a species of the

Homo sapiens, called Homo sapiens sapiens.
 THE SOCIAL AS “DRIVER INTERACTION”
The process of sociocultural evolution explains why human societies change through time. In this
process, societies produce new forms of subsistence, acquire more knowledge, develop different levels
of innovation, and apply new forms of technology as a response to the challenges posed by the
environment. Gerhard Lenski (1924-2015), an American sociologist, argued that human society
undergoes transformation and evolution and in the process develops technological advancement. This
is called sociocultural evolution. For Lenski, the development of technology, the information acquired by
humans on how to apply societal resources as a response to humans nedds and wanats, leads to the
evolution and transformation of society (Macionis, 2006, p. 44-45). Societies are of different types and
their types depend on their level of development. These include the following:

1. Hunting and gathering

2. Horticultural
3. Pastoral
4. Agricultural
5. Industrial
6. Post-Industrial
The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is
hunting and gathering. Hunting and gathering societies produce
simple forms of tools used to hunt for animals and gather plants
and vegetation for food. In the society, the men are task to hunt
large animal game like deer, elk, moose, and other animals
available in the areas. The women, on the other hand are
responsible for the collection of vegetation, berries, and small
edible crops. Because of this setup, scientist describe the
relationship between men and women as being equal.
Horticultural socies developed around 10,000 years ago and they are described as semi-sedentary
societies because they do not frequently move as opposed to hunting and gathering societies. These
societies subsist through small- scale farming. They use hoes and digging stick to bore holes in the
grounds for seed planting. These artifacts were first used in the fertile regions in West Asia (Middle
East) and Southeast Asia. By around 6,000 years ago, these simple farmingn tools were also used in
Western Europe and China.
Pastoral societies developed around 10,000 years ago. The principal means of subsitence of
pastoralists is animal dometication. Pastoralist societies developed in dry regions of the world where
rasing crops was not possible. These societies are classified an animal helders and subsist based
on the resources provided by their animals. Pastoralists are also engaged in small-scale trading with
other groups. They are described as semi-sedentary as well because they have settlements but they
do not stay in on place permanently. As opposed to hunting and gathering societies, both horticultutal
and pastoral societies are described as having unequal social relations because some members act
as the ruling elite.
Agricultural societies began 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic Period (8000-4000
BCE). During this time, the Neolithic Revoulution occured. With this major
sociocultural and economic development, agricultural societies started to cultivate
wheat, barley, peas, rice and millet between 8000 and 3500 BCE. During this time,
humans began to farm and domesticate animals as their form of subsistence. By
7000 BCE, Neolithic people podeuced cultivation tools and developed farming skills
that can support and sustain a town with a population of over a thousand people.
This was evident in Jericho located in the Jordan River Valley and Catal Huyuk
located in Turkey. Agriculture developed in Western Asia (Middle East) by 3500 BCE
and the abundant supply of resources produced through plant cultivation led to the
rise of th early civilazations. This new form of economic subsistence eventually
spread in different parts of the world and iti bacame known nas the Neolicthic
Revolution, which transformed societies into agricultural societies
Indutrial societies began when the Indutrial Revolution swept through Europe
during the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century (from
1780s to 1850s). During the Idutrial Revolution , new sources of energy were
harnessed, advanced forms of technology were applied, and machineries were
invented. These changes led to indutrialization od the transformation of an
agricultural society into a production- and manufacturing-based one. This was
made possible by the use of advanced sources of energy that operated factory
machineries. Indutrialization produced a number of caanges in society. It created
centralized workplaces, economic interdependence, formal education, and
complex social systems. During this time, people left their farm lands and
transferred to the urban areas to work in factories.
In the post-industrial era, Maacionis (2002) writews that production “centers on computers and
other electronic devises that create, process and apply ideas and information. “Daniel Bell, an
American sociologist at Harvard University, introduced the rise of the post -indutrial society.
According to Bell (1999), post-indutrial societies are characterized by the following:

1. Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service

2. A significant increase in the number of professional and technical employment and a decline
in the number of skilled and semiskilled workers.
3. Education as the basis os social mobility
4. Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength of society
5. Application of 'intellectual technlogy” which is based on the application of mathe,a,tics and
linguistics an the use of algorithms and software programming models
6. Focus on communication infrastructure
7. Knowledge as source of invention and innovation