CH HARI PRASAD

ASST.PROFESSOR
BAPATLA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
BAPATLA
 Unit 1
Operational amplifiers
• INTRODUCTION:
• VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES USED IN FABRICATION OF IC’S:
• CLASSIFICATION OF IC’S:
• IC CHIP SIZE:
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• DEFINATION:
• An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting
of one or more differential amplifiers, followed by a level translator and an
output stage.
• It is a versatile device that can be used to amplify ac as well as dc input
signals & designed for computing mathematical functions such as
addition, subtraction , multiplication, integration & differentiation.
 Open loop OP-Amp Configuration:
In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection, exists
between input and output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not
fedback in any form as part of the input signal.
it is 3 types
1.Differential
2.non inverting
3. inverting
The Differential Amplifier:
shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2 are
applied to the positive and negative input terminals. Since the OPAMP amplifies the
difference the between the two input signals, this configuration is called the differential
amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input signals. The source resistance
Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance Ri. Therefore
voltage drop across these resistances can be assumed to be zero. Therefore
v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2.
vo = Ad (vin1 – vin2 )
where, Ad is the open loop gain.
 The Inverting Amplifier:

If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is

grounded then it is called inverting amplifier.This configuration is shown
in fig.
v1= 0, v2 = vin.
vo = -Ad vin
The non-inverting amplifier:

In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals

and inverting terminal is ground as shown in fig.
v1 = +vin v2 = 0
vo = +Ad vin
This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase

reversal at the output. In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater
than zero drive the output to saturation level. This is because of very high gain.
Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is either negative or
positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels.
Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications
DC CHARACTRISTICS OF OP AMP
OP AMP APPLICATIONS
Instrumentation Amplifier
Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier:
 Voltage to current converter:
Fig. shows a voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is
floating (not connected to ground).
The input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the
feedback voltage across R drives the inverting input terminal. This
circuit is also called a current series negative feedback, amplifier
because the feedback voltage across R depends on the output current
iL and is in series with the input difference voltage vd.
Writing the voltage
equation for the input loop.
vin = vd + vf
But vd » since A is very large,therefore,
vin = vf
Vin = R iin
iin = v in / R.
and since input current is zero.
iL = iin = vin ./ R
The value of load resistance does not appear in this
equation. Therefore, the output current is
independent of the value of load resistance. Thus the
input voltage is converted into current, the source
must be capable of supplying this load current.
Grounded Load:
If the load has to be grounded, then the above circuit cannot
be used. The modified circuit is shown in fig.
Since the collector and emitter currents are equal to a close
approximation and the input impedance of OPAMP is very high,the load
current also flows through the feedback resistor R. On account of this,
there is still current feedback, which means that the load current is
stabilized.
Sincevd=0
\v2=v1=vin
\ iout = (vCC– vin ) / R
Thus the load current becomes nearly equal to iout. There is a limit to the
output current that the circuit can supply. The base current in the
transistor equals iout / bdc. Since the op-amp has to supply this base
current iout / bdc must be less than Iout (max) of the op-amp, typically 10 to
15mA.

There is also a limit on the output voltage, as the load resistance

increases, the load voltage increases and then the transistor goes into
saturation. Since the emitter is at Vin w. r. t. ground, the maximum load
voltage is slightly less than Vin
Op-Amp With Complex Impedance
ZF • Av = - (ZF/Z1)
• “-” : 180° phase shift
Z1
• Z=a±jb
- • Z = M <θ (polar
form)
Vo
Vin + • M = Sqrt(a2 + b2)
ZL • θ = tan-1 (b/a)
• Z = M Cosθ + j M
Sinθ
Inverting Configuration
 Op-Amp With Complex Impedance

ZF

Z1 • Av = 1+ (ZF/Z1)
-
Vo • Av = (Z1+ZF)/Z1
+
ZL
Vin

Non inverting Configuration

 Differentiator
• Differentiator: circuit whose output is
proportional to the derivative of its input
• Derivative of a function is the instantaneous
slope or rate of change of function
• Output of differentiator is proportional to the
rate of change of input signal, with respect to
time
• Output of op amp differentiator will always
lag input by 90° (inversion of true derivative)
• Problem: noise at high frequency
• To reduce noise at high frequency a resistor is
placed in series with the input capacitor
• To reduce noise, R1 < RF
• R1 may be chosen such that 10R1< RF to reduce
high frequency gain and noise
• Before adding R1: Gain characteristics of
unmodified differentiator is superimposed on a
typical op-amp open-loop Bode plot;
differentiator will act correctly up to f0
• After adding R1: differentiator gain levels off at f1
 Frequency response of differentiator
l A l (dB) Before adding R1 l A l (dB) After adding R1

AO AO
L L

f1 Log f
f0 Log f

l Av l = l R/(1/jωC) l = l jωRC l = ωRC

Av = -ωRC <90 = ωRC <-90

f1 = 1/(2πR1C)
 Differentiation of Nonsinusoidal Inputs

• Linear ramp input:

V0 = -RCk
K: function slope (V/s)

• Triangular input:
V0 = -RCkn
Kn: function slope
(V/s)

Operational Amplifiers and Linear

Integrated Circuits: Theory and Applications
by Denton J. Dailey
 Integrator
• Integrator effectively accumulates voltage over time;
presence of input offset voltage will cause capacitor to
charge up producing error in output
• Smaller the capacitor, more quickly offset error builds
up with time
• Solutions
– Use of larger capacitor
– Use of low-offset op amps
– Bias compensation resistor RB on noninverting terminal
– Use of resistor RC in parallel with feedback capacitor
– RC ≥ 10R1
In the DC condition Cf offers infinite resistance and so the integrator circuit will be like
an inverting opamp amplifier with infinite feedback resistance (Rf = ∞). The equation
for the voltage gain (A) of an opamp amplifier in inverting mode is A = -(Rf/R1).
Substituting Rf=∞ in the present scenario we get A=∞. Therefore the small input
offset voltage will get amplified by this factor and there will be an error voltage at the
output. This problem can be solved by adding a feedback resistor Rf parallel to Cf as
shown in fig 4 shown below.

The addition of Rf will fix the low frequency gain (A) of the circuit to a fixed small value
and so the input offset voltage will have practically no effect on the output offset
voltage and variations in the output voltage is prevented.
Integrating a square wave will result in a triangle waveform and integrating a
sine wave will result in a Cosine waveform. It is shown in the figures shown
below.
 Integrator

1 Vm Vm
v S  Vm sin  t vO    V sin  tdt  cos  t  sin( 90   t )
RC RC
m
RC
Frequency response of integrator
 Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits
• Most typical applications require op amp and its
components to act linearly
– I-V characteristics of passive devices such as resistors,
capacitors should be described by linear equation
(Ohm’s Law)
– For op amp, linear operation means input and output
voltages are related by a constant proportionality (Av
should be constant)
• Some application require op amps to behave in
nonlinear manner (logarithmic and
antilogarithmic amplifiers)
 Precision Rectifiers
• Op amps can be used to form nearly ideal rectifiers
(convert ac to dc)
• Idea is to use negative feedback to make op amp behave like
a rectifier with near-zero barrier potential and with linear
I/O characteristic
• Transconductance curves for typical silicon diode and an
ideal diode
Useful when signal to be rectified is very low in amplitude and where good linearity
is needed.
Frequency and power handling limitations of op amps limit the use of precision
rectifiers to low-power applications (few hundred kHz).
Precision full-wave rectifier is often referred to as absolute magnitude circuit.
 0peration:
Putting a diode in the feedback path produces a diode which gives virtually zero
output for half a cycle and a gain of unity for the other half cycle. It can therefore
rectify signals which are smaller than a diode drop. This device would usually be
followed by avoltage follower.
The high frequency response of this device is limited by the slew rate of the op-
amp used. Distortion can occur if the op-amp swings to its negative supply voltage
and can't get back fast enough. In this case the output will stay at zero too long,
distorting the wave.
This can be considered to be a non-inverting amplifier with a diode in the
feedback path. When the input goes negative, the output of the op-amp goes to
the negative supply so that no current flows and the output is clamped to zero.
When the signal goes positive the diode conducts to obey thecurrent rule and
the output tracks the input.
Note that this is an example where thevoltage rule is broken on the non-
conducting half cycle. The gain is very high because of the reversed diode, but it
can only drive the op-amp to the negative supply and cannot make the inputs
equal in voltage.
 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier
RF

D1 I2

R1 I2
-
D2
I1
Vin Vo
+ I2
Vx RL

• Solid arrows represent current flow for positive half-

cycles of Vin and dashed arrows represent current flow
for negative half-cycles
Precision Half-Wave Rectifier
• If signal source is going positive,
output of op amp begins to go
negative, forward biasing D1
– Since D1 is forward biased, output of
op amp Vx will reach a maximum level
of ~ -0.7V regardless of how far
positive Vin goes
– This is insufficient to appreciably
forward bias D2, and V0 remains at 0V
• On negative-going half-cycles, D1 is
reverse-biased and D2 is forward
biased
– Negative feedback reduces barrier
potential of D2 to 0.7V/AOL (~ = 0)
– Gain of circuit to negative-going
portions of Vin is given by AV = -RF/R1

Operational Amplifiers and Linear

Integrated Circuits: Theory and Applications
by Denton J. Dailey
 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier
R V R R
2 A 4 5
R I D
1 - 2 1 -
I U U
V
Vi 1 1 +2
n + R o
D
L
2
R
3
I V
2 B
• Solid arrows represent current flow for positive half-
cycles of Vin and dashed arrows represent current
flow for negative half-cycles
 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier
• Positive half-cycle causes D1 to become forward-
biased, while reverse-biasing D2
– VB = 0 V
– VA = -Vin R2/R1
– Output of U2 is V0 = -VA R5/R4 = Vin (R2R5/R1R4)
• Negative half-cycle causes U1 output positive, forward-
biasing D2 and reverse-biasing D1
– VA = 0 V
– VB = -Vin R3/R1
– Output of U2 (noninverting configuration) is
V0 = VB [1+ (R5/R4)]= - Vin [(R3/R1)+(R3R5/R1R4)
– if R3 = R1/2, both half-cycles will receive equal gain