Induction heating

• Non-contact heating process uses high

• Non-contact heating Induction
process heating
• uses high frequency electricity to heat materials that are
electrically conductive

1. What makes the conductive material to heat up?

• Eddy current in conductive non-magnetic materials (Cu) & eddy
& Hysterisis in conductive-magnetic materials (iron & steel)
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
2. What about plastics?
 Page#90 Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model

• What are the components of transformer model?

• Why to find the values of components in the transformer

model? Transformer (T/F) Characteristics (distinctiveness)

Efficiency () Voltage Regulation (VR)

RP jXP RS jXS

RC jXM
 Transformer (T/F) Characteristics (distinctiveness)

Efficiency () Voltage Regulation (VR)

Power Output Vs no _ load   Vs full _ load 
 % VR   100
Power Input Vs full _ load 
Power Input  Losses Voltage Drop
 In series
Power Input Across XP & XS
voltage
Eddy Current Losses Voltage Drop drop
Hysterisis Losses (RP& RS)

Copper Losses
(RP& RS)
 Page#90 Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model

How to find Values of Components ? Do the Following Test

Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

find RC & XM find Reqp, Xeqp OR Reqs , Xeqs

IP IS/a Reqp jXeqp

IO
IC IM
VP aVS
RC jXM
 small Open Circuit Test
Scale Ampere
(IO) Meter
Wattmeter
Why? IP(t)
Large
Scale
A • •
Why ?
Volt Open
V(t) V Meter
VP(t)
Circuit

Figure 2-19 Connection for Transformer

transformer open-circuit test

Apply rated primary (input) Voltage

IO No-Load current flows primary
Wattmeter reads …..?
Core losses
 large Short Circuit Test
scale Secondary
Ampere Short Circuit
(IO) Meter
Why? Wattmeter
IP(t)
small A
Scale • •
Why ?

V(t) V
Volt
VP(t) A
Meter

Figure 2-20 Connection for Transformer

transformer short-circuit test
Apply rated current
Full load IP & IS current flows
Wattmeter reads …?.....
I2R (Copper)
 Page#90 Determining the Values of Components in the
Tests : FindTransformer
Values of Components
Model

Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

Secondary
Ampere Ampere
Meter
Short
Wattmeter Meter Wattmeter
IP(t) IP(t) Circuit
A • • A • •

Volt
VP(t) Open V
Volt
VP(t) A
V(t) V Meter
V(t) Meter
Circuit

Figure 2-19 Connection for Transformer Figure 2-20 Connection for Transformer
transformer open-circuit test transformer short-circuit test

Apply rated primary (input) Voltage Apply rated current

IO No-Load current flows primary Full load IP & IS current flows
Wattmeter reads …..?
Core losses
Wattmeter reads I2R (Copper)
Example
A 20-kVA,2.2
8000/240-V,
(page 92)60-Hz T/F. The open-circuit test (OCT) and
the short-circuit test (SCT) were performed on the primary side of
the T/F, and the following data were taken:

OCT (on primary) SCT (on primary)

Voc = 8000 V Vsc = 489 V
Ioc = 0.214 A Isc = 2.5 A
Poc = 400 W Psc = 240 W
Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred
to the primary side, and sketch the circuit.
Wattmeter
IP(t)
A • •

V(t)
V(t) V VP(t) A
 Wattmeter
IP(t)
Answer A • •

V(t) V VP(t)

OCT (on primary)

Voc = 8000 V VOC
Ioc =Io= 0.214 A
Poc = 400 W ??
IOC=I0=IP=0.214 IC IM

VOC8000 RC XM

POC=400W
OCT (on primary)
IOC=I0=0.214 IC IM
Voc = 8000 V
VP=8000 Y=1/Z RC XM
Ioc =Io= 0.214 A
Poc = 400 W ???
POC=400W

IOC 0.214 5
  oc  2.7 x10   76 .5
0
Y  Y 
VOC 8000

0.214 Poc
Y   2.7 x10 5 mho cos oc 
8000 Voc Ioc
400
Poc  Voc Ioc cos oc cos oc   0.2336
8000 x0.214
1
oc  cos 0.2336  76.5 0
OCT (on primary)
IOC=I0=0.214 IC IM
Voc = 8000 V 1 1
VP=8000 R C  RC XM  XM
GC BM
Ioc =Io= 0.214 A
Poc = 400 W
Admit tan ce (parallel circuits)
IOC 0.214 5
  oc  2.7 x10   76 .5
0
Y  Y 
VOC 8000
Yoc  GC  jBM Gc =│Yoc│cosoc
oc=76.5o
Yoc=│Yoc│cosoc - j│Yoc│ sinoc
│Yoc│ jBM =│Yoc│sinoc
=2.7x10-5mho
 R jX
1 1
G  jB 
V Y=1/Z jX
R
Z I

G=│Y│cos


│Z│ X= │Z│sin
│Y│ B=│Y│sin


R= │Z│cos Why
Negative ?
Z  Y
Z  R  jX Y  G  jB
Z=│Z│cos + j│Z│ sin Y=│Y│cos - j│Y│ sin
OCT (on primary)
IOC=I0=0.214 IC IM
Voc = 8000 V XM=X
VP=8000 RC
RC=159k M
Ioc =Io= 0.214 A 38.4k
Poc = 400 W
Gc Yoc=│Yoc│cosoc - j│Yoc│ sin oc
oc=76.5o

Yoc=2.7x10-5 cos76.5 -J2.7x10-5 sin76.5

│Yoc│ jBM
=2.7x10-5mho Y=6.25x10-6 -j 2.53x10-6
1 1 1
Yoc  GC  jBM  j
Z oc R C XM
1 1 1
Yoc  ; GC  ; BM 
Z oc RC XM Z=159000 + j38400 
 Wattmeter
IP(t)
Answer A • •

V(t) V VP(t) A

SCT (on primary)

Vsc = 489 V
VSC
Isc = 2.5 A
Psc = 240 W ?? Reqp jXeqp

PSC=240W

VSC=489
ISC=Irated=215
SCT (on primary) Reqp jXeqp

Vsc = 489 V
VSC=489
Isc = 2.5 A ISC=Irated=215

Psc = 240 W

Vsc  489
Zsc  Zsc sc   sc  195 .6 76.68 0
Isc  2.5
489
Z sc   195 .6 ohms
2.5
240
Psc  Vsc Isc cos sc cos sc   0.196
489 x 2.5
Psc 1
 cos sc  sc  cos 0.196  76.68 0
Vsc Isc
SCT (on primary) Reqp jXeqp

Vsc = 489 V =38.4 =j192

VSC=489
Isc = 2.5 A ISC=Irated=215

Psc = 240 W

Zsc  Zsc sc  195 .6 76.68 0

Zsc=│Zsc│cossc + j│Zsc│ sin sc
│ZSC│
Zsc=195.6 cos76.68 +j195.6sin76.68
=195.6
jXSC =j│Zsc│sinsc
oc=76.68 Z SC( eqp )  R SC( eqp )  jX SC( eqp )
RSC =│Zsc│cossc Zeqp=38.4 +j 192 
 IP IS/a Reqp jXeqp

IO 38.4 j192
IC IM
VP aVS
RC jXM
159k 38.4k

Practice Question

Question:- For the same transformer given in the previous

example, if the OCT & SCT are performed on the secondary
side, (a) what will be the Voltage, current and power readings
for the OCT and SCT.
(b) find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit
referred to the secondary side. Compare the data with part (a)
and sketch the circuit diagram.
2.7 (page 100) Transformer Voltage Regulation(VR) & Efficiency

The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the

magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load.

Vs no  load  Vs full  load

% Voltage Regulation   100
Vs full  load

since at no - load VS  VP /a 

Vp/a no  load  Vs full  load

  100
Vs full  load
Transformer Voltage Regulation & Vector Diagram

VP/a no  load   VS full  load 

% Voltage Regulation   100
VS full  load 
Reqp jXeqp

IS VReq VjXeq L
VP VS O
=ReqIS =XeqIS A
a
d

VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS

VP
a
 Req IS  jXeq IS  VS
Transformer Voltage Regulation & Vector Diagram

VP/a no  load   VS full  load 

%VR   100
VS full  load 
Reqp jXeqp

IS VReq VjXeq L
VP VS O
=ReqIS =XeqIS A
a
d
The VR of the
T/F depends on
the voltage
VP
a
 VS  R eqIS  jX eqIS VP/a no  load   V S 
magnitude
full  of 
load
these series
parameters.
Req I S  jX eq I S
%VR   100
Vs full  load
Fig 2-26 (page 101) Vector Dig
Lagging Power Factor Reqp jXeqp IS -

VReq VjXeq L Lagging

VP =ReqIS =XeqIS VS o
a Power Factor
a
d Load

Phase relation VP
betweenrelation
Phase IS & a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS
VReq ?
between IS & VS is assumed to
VXeq ? VP/a
be at angle 0o
( VS-). All other
voltages & currents
VReq VS are compared to
VjXeq
IS VP/a > VS
this reference
V  Vsf l
% VR  p/a  100  Positive
?
Vsf l
Vector Diagram Reqp jXeqp IS

VReq VjXeq L
VP VS o
a Veq a
d

Veq




 : Power Factor angle (Between Vs & Is)

 :Angle between Vs & VP/a
 : Angle between VReq & Veq
Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig
Unity Power Factor Reqp jXeqp IS -

VReq VjXeq L
VP =ReqIS =XeqIS VS o Unity
a a Power Factor
d
Load

VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS

VP/a

VP/a > VS

VS Vp/a  Vsf l
% VR   100  ?Positive
Vsf l
Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig
Leading PF Reqp jXeqp IS 

VReq VjXeq L
VP =ReqIS =XeqIS VS o Leading
a a Power Factor
d
Load

VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS

VP/a

VP/a <VS
VReq

VS Vp/a  Vsf l
% VR   100  ?
Negative
Vsf l
Transformer Efficiency

Power Output

Power Input

Power Input  Losses


Power Input
Losses
  1
Power Input
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss
  1
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss  VsIs cos 

The efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.

 Pcopper loss  Pcore loss
Transforme r Effciency  1 
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss  VsIs cos 
Efficiency - Points to remember
1. Core losses (Hysteris & eddy) are fixed losses – independent of the
load (load current)
2. Copper losses (winding losses-I2R) are variable losses and depends
on load
When Transformer operate at its maximum Efficiency?
Core losses (fixed losses) = Copper losses (variable losses)

2 x Pcore loss
max  1 
2 x Pcore loss  VsIs cos 

The above statement is also valid for Motors & Generators

Example
A 15-kVA,2.5
2300/230-V,
(page 103) 60-Hz T/F. The open-circuit test (OCT) and
the short-circuit test (SCT) were performed on the primary side of
the T/F, and the following data were taken:

OCT (on primary) SCT (on primary)

Voc = 2300 V Vsc = 47 V
Ioc = 0.21 A Isc = 6.0 A
Poc = 50 W Psc = 160 W

Wattmeter
IP(t)
A • •

V(t)
V(t) V VP(t) A

Fida Muhammad (Air University)

(a) Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit
referred to the HV-side (You can do this part: refer to slide#9) .
IP IS/a Reqp jXeqp

IO
38.4
4.45 j192
J6.45
IC IM
VP aVS Figure:2-29(a)
RC jXM
159k
105k j11k

(b) Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit

referred to the LV-side. (You can do this part: refer to slide#9) .
aIP IS Reqs jXeqs

IO
38.4 J0.0645
0.0445
IC IM
VP/a VS Figure:2-29(b)
RC jXM
159k
1050k 38.4k
j110k
(c) Calculate the full-load (rated-load) voltage regulation:
(i) at 0.8 lagging power factor
(ii) at unity (1) power factor
(iii) at 0.8 leading power factor
aIP IS Reqs jXeqs
We can use any of the
IO
referred circuits to find IC IM
38.4 J0.0645
0.0445
VR. Its easy to use VP/a VS Figure:2-29(b)
RC jXM
figure referred to the 159k
1050k 38.4k
j110k
secondary side.
VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS VS=Vsf =230V - Given
Vp/a=unknown
VP
a
 VS  Req IS  jX jeqIS
To get Vp/a find ReqIS & XeqIS
Vp/a  Vsf l Req=0.0445; Xeq=0.0645
% VR   100  ? from SCT & OCT.
Vsf l IS=IS(rated) un-known
How to find IS =IS(rated) ? Full  load current on the sec ondary
Srated
Parallel circuit is omitted. side of this T / F is IS,rated 
Why ?? Vs,rated
Reqp 0.0445 jXeqp 0.0645 15,000 VA
IS,rated   65 .2
IS
230
VReq VjXeq L
IS,rated  65 .2  36 .9 0
VP ReqIS,rated V O
XeqIS,rated S A at PF  0.8 lagging
a
(15000 VA ) (0.8)d
IS=IS,rated  65 .2  36 .90

Vp/a  Vsf l
VP % VR   100  ?
a
 VS  Req IS  jX jeqIS Vsf l

VP
 2300 o V  (0.0445)(65.2  36.9o A)  j(0.0645)(65.2  36.9o A)
a
VP
 2300 o V  2.9  36.9o V  4.2153.1o V
a
VP
 2300 V  2.9  36.9 V  4.2153 .1o V  234 .850.4o V
o o
a
234.85V  230V
% VR   100  2.1% Angles are not used in
230Vsf l VR – has no unit why?
(e) What is the efficiency of the T/F at full load with a PF=0.8
lagging?
Use this
Power Output VS IS cos  equation
 
Power Input VS IS cos   PCu  Pcore
What is the
Power Input  Losses problem with

Power Input this equation ?

VS IS =S (apparent power) and cos=0.8 lagging are known

Power input is unknown. We can use input equation, if the T/F

circuit is referred to the primary side. - Try & find efficiency
 Power Output VS IS cos 
 
Power Input VS IS cos   PCu  Pcore

PCu= (IS)2 Req = (65.2A)2 (0.0445) = 189 Watts

2
 P 
V SCT is performed
 a  2 with ISC=6A, where
Pcore    
234 .85 V
 52 .5 Watts as I
RC 1050  P(rated)= 6.52A

(15000 VA ) (0.8)
 x100  98 .03 0
(15000 VA ) (0.8)  189 W  52 .5 W 0
 What is the condition for the maximum efficiency in the T/F?

Core Losses = Copper Losses

Pcore = Pcopper

In the previous problem find the current at maximum efficiency?

I2Rseq= 52.5 W

52 .5
Imax   34 .34 Amps
0.0445 

T/F will operate at almost half the rated load (half of T/F capacity)
Example 2-5 Page # 103

Fida Muhammad (Air University)

Solution

Fida Muhammad (Air University)

Fida Muhammad (Air University)
 IP IS/a Reqp jXeqp

IO 38.4
4.45 j192
J6.45
IC IM
VP aVS Figure:2-29(a)
RC jXM
159k
105k j11k
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
Continued
Fida Muhammad (Air University)
 Practice Problem

A single-phase, 100-kVA, 1000:100-V, 60-Hz transformer has the following

test results:

Open-circuit test (HV side open): 100 V, 6 A, 400 W

Short-circuit test (LV side shorted): 50 V, 100 A, 1800 W

• Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-voltage

side. Label impedances numerically in ohms and in per unit.
•
• Determine the voltage regulation at rated secondary current with 0.6
power factor lagging. Assume the primary is supplied with rated voltage

• Determine the efficiency of the transformer when the secondary current is

75% of its rated value and the power factor at the load is 0.8 lagging with
a secondary voltage of 98 V across the load
Example 4

A 20-kVA, 8000:277-V distribution transformer has the following

resistances and reactances:

RP = 32 ohm RS = 0.05 ohm

XP = 45 ohm XS = 0.06 ohm
RC = 250,000 ohm XM = 30,000 ohm
The excitation branch impedances are referred to the high-voltage side.
a) Find the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-voltage
side.
b)

b) Find the per unit equivalent circuit of this transformer.

Neglect
c) Assume that the transformer is supplying rated load at 277 V and 0.8
power factor lagging. What is this transformer’s input voltage? What is
its voltage regulation?
d) What is this transformer’s efficiency under the conditions of part (c)?
 PU System
Per unit system, a system of dimensionless parameters, is used for
computational convenience and for readily comparing the performance
of a set of transformers or a set of electrical machines.
Actual Quantity
PU Value 
Base Quantity

Where ‘actual quantity’ is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

[VA]base and [V]base are chosen first.
VAbase
I base 
V base
Pbase  Qbase  S base  VAbase  V base I base VAbase  pri  VAbase sec
V base V base
2
V base
2
Rbase  X base  Z base   
I base S base VAbase V base  pri
 turns ratio
I base V base sec
Ybase 
V base
Z
Z PU
 ohm
Z base
 Two major advantages in using a per unit
system:
1. It eliminates the need for conversion of the voltages,
currents, and impedances across every transformer in
the circuit; thus, there is less chance of computational
errors.
2. The need to transform from three phase to single phase
equivalents circuits, and vise versa, is avoided with the
per unit quantities; hence, there is less confusion in
handling and manipulating the various parameters in
three phase system.
Example 2-3 Page 95
Multi Tapping Transformers (Secondary)

If electrical isolation between secondary circuits is not of great

importance. A similar effect can be obtained by "tapping" a single
secondary winding at multiple points along its length, like this:

Dr. Fida Muhammad

Khan
Other - Transformers

Auto Transformer

CT - Current Transformers

PT - Potential Transformers

Differential Transformers

Air Core Transformers

 Auto-Transformer
• Auto-Transformer is a transformer with only one
winding.
• That means, the primary and secondary windings are
not electrically isolated form each other. In other
words, the primary and the secondary of
autotransformer are physically connected.
• The theory is almost the same as two winding
transformer.
Sec 2.9 (page 109) Autotransformer
The advantage of an autotransformer is that the same boosting
or bucking function is obtained with only a single winding,
making it cheaper and lighter to manufacture than a regular
(isolating) transformer having both primary and secondary
windings

More
Turns
on
Less
Load
Turns on
side
Load
side
Step-up Autotransformer Step-down Autotransformer
(Slight Boost) (Slight Down)
Variac (Auto Transformer)
The latter configuration is popular enough to have earned itself
its own name: the Variac.
Small variacs for bench top use are popular pieces of
equipment for the electronics experimenter, being able to step
household AC voltage down (or sometimes up as well) with a
wide, fine range of control by a simple twist of a knob.
 Autotransformer
• Autotransformers are transformers in which the primary
and secondary windings are coupled magnetically and
electrically.

• This results in lower cost, and smaller size and weight.

• The key disadvantage is loss of electrical isolation

between the voltage levels. This can be an important
safety consideration when a is large. For example in
stepping down 7160/240 V we do not ever want 7160 on
the low side!
 Advantage and disadvantage
• Principal disadvantage of auto transformer is a lost
of isolation between the primary and secondary
circuits

• In autotransformer there is an apparent power rating

advantage
Sec 2.13(page 140) Instrument Transformers
Potential Transformer (PT) and Current Transformers (CT)

To measure High Voltages and High Currents

The PT is a step-down device,
 Instrument Transformer
• Voltage Transformer (Potential Transformer)
– Is used to measure or monitor the voltage on
transmission lines and to isolate the metering
equipment from the lines.

Dr. Fida Muhammad

Khan
 Instrument Transformer
• Current Transformer
– Is used to measure or monitor the current in
transmission lines and to isolate the metering
equipment and relay connected to secondary side.

Dr. Fida Muhammad

Khan
 Differential Transformer

hot wire secondary neutral wire

solenoid
switch
If the current in the hot wire is the same as the current in the
neutral wire, the induced current in the secondary is zero.
Dr. Fida Muhammad
Khan
 Differential Transformer

hot wire secondary neutral wire

solenoid
switch
If some current is lost because of a grounding problem,
current in the secondary opens the solenoid switch.
Dr. Fida Muhammad
Khan
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) has an AC driven
primary wound between two secondary on a cylindrical air core
form.

A movable ferromagnetic slug converts displacement to a variable

voltage by changing the coupling between the driven primary and
secondary windings.

The LVDT is a displacement or distance measuring transducer.

Units are available for measuring displacement over a distance of
a fraction of a millimeter to a half a meter.

LVDT's are rugged and dirt resistant compared to linear optical

encoders.
 Air core transformers
Special transformer, used in radio-frequency circuits, is the air
core transformer.

Air core transformer has its windings wrapped around a

nonmagnetic form, usually a hollow tube of some material.

The degree of coupling (mutual inductance) between windings in

such a transformer is many times less than that of an equivalent
iron-core transformer, but the undesirable characteristics of a
ferromagnetic core (eddy current losses, hysteresis, saturation,
etc.) are completely eliminated.

It is in high-frequency applications that these effects of iron cores

are most problematic.
 Three Phase Transformer
Three phase transformer can be constructed in two
way:

1) To take three single-phase transformers and

connect them in a three phase bank.
2) To make a three phase transformer consisting
of three sets of windings wrapped on a common
core.
Advantages: Lighter, smaller, cheaper and
slightly more efficient
 Three single transformer
banked composed of
independent transformers

Three phase transformer

wound on a single three
legged core
 Three Phase Transformer Connections

Four possible connections for three phase

transformer:

1. Wye-Wye (Y-Y)
2. Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)
3. Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)
4. Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
 Wye-Wye Connection

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3VP
 a
VLS 3VS
where a is the voltage ratio of each phase
 Drawbacks of Wye-Wye Connection

This type of connections has two serious problems

1. If load on the transformer circuits are unbalanced, then

the voltages on the phases of the transformer can be
severely unbalanced
They can be tackled by grounding the neutral of
transformer. (Provide the return path for any unbalanced
current in load, causes the third harmonic component
current flow to the ground). Or by addition of tertiary delta
winding to transformer. (To support circulating currents)

2. Third harmonic voltages can be large

 Wye-Delta Connection

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP
 3a
VLS

where a is the voltage ratio of each phase

 Drawbacks of Wye-Delta Connection

1. No problem related to third harmonic components or

unbalances due to the presence of delta winding.

2. 30 Degree phase shift due to different types of

connections which can cause problem while paralleling
two secondaries of transformer banks. In US it is
customary to give 30 degree phase shift to the
secondary as compared to primary.
 Delta-Wye Connection

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP a

VLS 3
Voltage lags by 30 degrees
 Delta-Delta Connection

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP VP
 a
VLS VS
No phase shift, No harmonics or unbalanced load problems