Landscapes

 The distinct association of landforms, especially as

modified by geological forces, which can be distinguished
in a single view. e.g. mountain, plateau, plains, glacier etc.

Plains- 41%
Plateau- 33%
Hills- 14% and
Mountains- 12% of the surface area of the globe.
 OROGENESIS
De Sitter (1956) defines orogenesis as “ a general term for all relatively swift
and sever (paroxysmal) deformation of different kinds which have more than
a local extension”.

An Orogenic phase is a deformation that happened in a distinct time interval;

and an orogenic period is representation of several phases.

An Orogen has been defined as a comparatively narrow deformed zone and

an orogenic belt as result of one or several related mountain systems which
have been deformed in one orogenic period.
Phase Sub-phase Geological Time scale De Sitter
Apline/ Himalayan Passadenian Holocene Classification of
Attic Pliocene Orogenic
Skytic Miocene Phase (1956)
Helvic Oligocene
Pyreneic Pyreneic Eocene

Austrian Laramide Upper Cretaceous

Oregonian Lower Cretaceous
Cimeric Narvadan Jurassic
Pallisade Triassic
Hercynian Appalachian Permian
Austrian Upper Carboniferous
Sudefic Lower Carboniferous
Caledonian Acadian Devonian
Erian Silurian
Tacoric Ordovician
Sordic Cambrian
Precambrian Lake Superior
Huronian
Karelian
Lauretian
Archean
Origin & Classification of Mountains
Mountains:
Mountains are significant relief features (H≥600m) on the earth’s
surface.

Form of Mountains:

(i) The Mountain Ridge

(ii) The Mountain Range

(iii) The Mountain Chain

(iv) The Mountain System

(v) The Mountain Group

(vi) Cordillera
(i) The Mountain Ridge:

It is a system of long, narrow and high hills (>1000m). Generally the slope of
one side of the ridge is steep while the other side is of moderate slope but a ridge
may also have symmetrical slope on both sides.

1 2
 (ii) The Mountain Range:
It is a system of mountains and hills having several ridges, peaks and
valleys. All of the hills of a mountain range are of the same age but there are
structural variations in different members of the range.

2
1

4
3
 (iii) The Mountain Chain: It consists of several parallel long and narrow
mountains of different periods. Some times, the mountain ranges are separated
by flat upland.
 (iv) The Mountain System: It consists of different mountain ranges of the
same period. Different mountain ranges are separated by valleys.
(v) The Mountain Group

Consists of several unsystematic patterns of different mountain systems.

 (vi) Cordillera: It consists of several mountain groups and systems. In
fact it is a community of mountains having different ridges, ranges, mountain
chains and mountain systems.
Classification of Mountains
1. On the basis of height:

(i) Low mountains; H- 700-1000m

(ii) Rough mountains; H-1000-1500m
(iii) Rugged mountains; H- 1500-2000m
(iv) High mountains; H>2000m

2. On the basis of location:

(i) Continental mountains

(a) Coastal mountains: Applachians, Rockies, Alpine

mountain chains, Western and Eastern Ghats of India etc.

(b) Inland mountains: Ural Mountains (Russia), Vosges

and Black Forest mountains (Europe), Himalayas,
Aravallis, Satpura, Maikal, Vindhyan (India).

(ii) Oceanic mountains: Mauna Kea volcanic mountains of Hawaii

3. On the basis of mode of origin:

(i) Precambrian mountains: Lauretian mountains, Algoman mountains.

(ii) Caledonian mountains: (Silurian and Devonian) e.g. Applachian

mountain system, Satpura, Mahadev etc.

(iii) Hercynian mountains: (Permian and permocarboniferous) e.g. Vosges

and Black forest mountains of central France, Tien Shan of Asia etc.

(iv) Alpine mountains: (Tertiary) e.g. Rockies (N. America), Andes (S.
America), Alpine mountain system of Europe, Himalayas and mountains coming out
of Pamir Knot of Asia.
 4. On the basis of characteristics:
(i) Block Mountains: Vosges and Black Forest mountains of Europe, Salt
range of Pakistan, Sierra Nevada mountain of California (USA).

1 3

4
5
(ii) Folded mountains: Rockies, Andies, Alps, Himalayas, Atlas etc.

1 2 3

4
Theory origin of Mountains
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi)Plate Tectonic Theory

(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober:
Kober has identified 6 major periods of mountain building.
 Three mountain building periods have occurred during pre- Cambrian period.

 In Paleozoic era two major mountain building periods.

 The last orogenic activity known as Alpine orogeny was completed during Tertiary
epoch.

According to Kober the whole process of mountain building go through the three
interlinked stages.
 (i) Lithogenesis,

 (ii) Orogenesis and

 (iii) Gliptogenesis.
Shortcoming of the Kober’s theory:

 The force of contraction, as envisaged by Kober, is not sufficient to cause

mountain building. The mountains like Alps, Himalayas and Rokies etc. cannot be
formed by the force of contraction generated by the cooling of the earth.
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of

Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi)Plate Tectonic Theory

 (ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys:

Jeffry’s postulated the thermal contraction theory to explain the origin and
evolution of major relief’s of the earth’s surface.
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi) Plate Tectonic Theory

 (iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly:

Daly has assumed certain axiom in support of his theory.

 According to him a solid crust was formed just after the origin of the earth. There were three belts of
rigid masses e.g. (i) north polar domes, (ii) equatorials domes and (iii) south polar domes.

 These rigid masses were separated by depressed region which were called by Daly as mid latitude
furrows and primeval Pacific Ocean.

 Daly assumed that the crust was composed of granites, which was heavier than the rocks of substratum
below the crust. The substratum was composed of lighter glassy basalt.

 He further assumed that the water bodies occupied about half of the globe and Tethys geosyncline was a
marked feature throughout much of geological time.

The land masses projected above the water bodies and the polar and equatorial domes were sloping
towards mid- latitude furrows and the Pacific Ocean.
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi) Plate Tectonic Theory

 (iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes:
According to Holmes the earth consists of three zones or layers e.g. (i) upper
layer of granodiorite (10 to 12km), (ii) intermediate layer (20 to 25km) of amphibolite and (iii)
lower layer of eclogite.

He has further grouped these three layers into two zones e.g. (i) crust consisting of
upper and middle or intermediate layers and crystalline upper part of lower layer and (ii)
substratum representing molten part of the lower layer. Crust and substratum are composed
of sial and sima respectively.

According to Holems there is maximum concentration of radioactive elements in the

crust but temperature is not so high because there is gradual loss of heat through
conduction and radiation from the upper surface at the rate of 60 calories/ sqcm/ year.

The convective currents, generated at some places in the substratum.

Because of difference in temperature gradient from the equator towards the poles
rising convective currents are formed under the equatorial crust while downward moving
convective current generated under the polar crust.

Convective currents originating under the continental crust are more powerful than the
convective currents originating under the oceanic crust.
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi) Plate Tectonic Theory

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly:
(i) Geosynclinal theory of Kober

(ii) Thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys

(iii) Sliding continental theory of Daly

(iv) Thermal convection current theory of Holmes

(v) Radioactivity theory of Joly

(vi) Plate Tectonic Theory