BUILDING MAINTENANCE &

REPAIRS

DESIGN
&
CONSTRUCTIO
N ERRORS
HOW IT AFFECTS REPAIR & REHABILITATION
OF STRUCTURES
 CONTENTS
■ Introduction
■ Design and Detailing Errors
– Causes
■ Types of Design Errors
■ Construction Errors
– Causes
■ Types of Construction Errors
■ Effect of Design & Construction Errors on Repair &
Rehabilitation
■ Conclusion
■ References

2
 INTRODUCTION
■ In buildings, repair & rehabilitation become necessary, as some parts of the
building naturally tend to deteriorate & become more defective. This may also
happen due to lack of maintenance.
■ Repair: To restore (something damaged, faulty, or worn) to a good condition, for
example repair of leakage in buildings, etc.
■ Rehabilitation: To restore something to it’s good or original condition
■ Design and construction errors increase the cost and schedule overruns

3
 PLASTIC
SHRINKAG
E

SETTLEMEN
T
SHRINKAGE
DRYING
BLEEDING

CONCRETE BEFORE FORMWOR

DELAYED
HARDENIN KCURING
CRACKS IN

G MOVEMENT
EXCESS
VIBRATION
CONSTRUCTIONAL SUBGRADE
EARLY SETTLEMEN
FROST T
DAMAGE FINISHING

4
 CEMEN
T

UNSOUND MATERIALS AGGREGATES

LONG TERM EXCESS SILT, MUD &

DRYING DUST
SHRINKAGE

HEAT OF HYDRATION

EXTERNAL
TEMPERATU
RE
THERMA JOINTS IN
L CONCRETE

MOISTURE ELEVATED
AFTER MOVEMENT TEMPERATU

CONCRETE
CRACKS IN
HARDENING S RE

TRANSITION FREEZING &

ZONE THAWING

BIOLOGICA SULPHATE ATTACK

L

STRUCTURAL DESIGN ALKALI-AGGREGATE

DEFICIENCIES REACTION

ACID ATTACK

CHEMICAL

SEA
CORROSION OF WATER
REINFORCEME
NT CARBONATION

CHLORIDE ATTACK

5
DESIGN &
DETAILING ERROR
S
A deviation from the plans and
specifications Responsibility of owner,
designer and contractor

6
 CAUSES
■ Accuracy of drawings
■ Number of design omissions and
ambiguities
■ Inadequacy within plans and specifications
■ Quality of facility

7
TYPES OF
DESIGN ERROR
S
8
 TYPES OF DESIGN
1.
ERRORS
Inadequate Structural Design
2. Poor Design Details
A. Abrupt Changes in Section
B. Insufficient Reinforcement at Corners and Openings
C. Inadequate Provision for Deflection
D. Inadequate Provision for Drainage
E. Insufficient Travel in Expansion Joints
F. Incompatibility of Materials
G. Neglect of Creep Effect
H. Rigid Joints Between Precast Units
I. Unanticipated Shear Stresses in Piers, Columns, or
Abutments
J. Inadequate Joint Spacing in Slabs

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 1. INADEQUATE
STRUCTURAL
■ CAUSES
– Due to inadequate structuralDESIGN
design the
concrete is exposed to greater stress
than it can handle or strain in concrete
increases more than its strain capacity
and fails
■ SYMPTOMS
– Spalling of concrete due to
high compressive strength
– Cracking of concrete due to torsion
and shear stress
■ PREVENTION
– Thorough review of all design
calculations
– Careful review of rehabilitation
methods, if any
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 2. POOR DESIGN
■ CAUSES
DETAILS
– Localised concentration of high stresses in structural members
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of concrete that allows water or chemicals to pass through
concrete
– Seepage through structural members
– Structural failure
■ PREVENTION
– Thorough and careful review of all design calculations

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2A. ABRUPT
CHANGES IN
SECTION
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking because of
stress concentrations
■ PREVENTION
– Use of relatively thin sections
rigidly tied into massive
sections or patches and
replacement concrete that are
not uniform in plan
dimensions
2B. INSUFFICIENT
REINFORCEMENT
AT CORNERS AND
OPENINGS
■ CAUSES
– Increased stress
concentration at corners
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of concrete
■ PREVENTION
– Provide additional
reinforcement in areas
where stress concentrations
are expected to occur

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 2C.
INADEQUATE
PROVISION FOR
■ DEFLECTION
CAUSES
– Loading of members or
sections beyond the capacities
for which they were designed
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of walls or
partitions due to loadings
2B.
INADEQUATE
PROVISION FOR
■ CAUSE DRAINAGE
S– Ponding of water caused
by poor attention to
details of draining
– Saturation resulting in
severely damaged concrete in
an area subjected to freezing
and thawing
■ SYMPTOMS
– Leakage may result in
damage
to the interior structure
– Staining and encrustations
on the structure
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 2E. INSUFFICIENT
2F. INCOMPATIBILITY
TRAVEL IN
OF MATERIALS
EXPANSION JOINTS
■ CAUSES ■ CAUSES
– Inadequately designed
expansion joints – The use of materials with
different properties (modulus
■ SYMPTOMS
of elasticity or coefficient of
– Spalling of concrete adjacent
thermal expansion) adjacent to
to one another
the joints
■ PREVENTION ■ SYMPTOMS
– The full range of possible – Cracking or spalling as
temperature differentials that the structure is loaded or
a concrete may be expected as it is subjected to daily
to experience should be taken
into account in the or annual temperature
specification for expansion variations
joints

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 2H. RIGID JOINTS
2G. NEGLECT OF
BETWEEN
CREEP
PRECAST UNITS
EFFECT
■ CAUSES ■ SYMPTOMS
– Inadequate provision – Cracking or spalling
for deflections ■ PREVENTION
– Neglect of creep in pre-
– Designs utilizing precast
stressed concrete members elements must provide for
may lead to excessive movement between
prestress loss adjacent precast elements
■ SYMPTOMS or between the precast
– Cracking as loads are applied elements and the
supporting frame

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 2I. UNANTICIPATED
2J. INADEQUATE
SHEAR STRESSES IN
JOINT SPACING IN
PIERS, COLUMNS,
SLABS
OR ABUTMENTS
■ CAUSES ■ SYMPTOMS
– Lack of maintenance – Cracking of slabs-on-
– Freezing of expansion bearing grade
assembles causing horizontal
loading to be transferred to
the concrete elements
supporting the bearings
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of concrete
– Entry of water into
the concrete

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 BLUE TSHUMI INSUFFICIENT TRAVEL IN EXPANSION
ABRUPT CHANGE IN JOINTS
SECTION

INSUFFICIENT INADEQUATE PROVISION INADEQUATE PROVISION

REINFORCEMENT AT FOR FOR
CORNERS AND DEFLECTION DRAINAGE
OPENINGS
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 CONSTRUCTIO
N ERROR
S
Mistakes or inadequacies in a structure's own construction damage it
partly
or completely

1
 CAUSES
■ May occur due to failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or
outright carelessness
■ May not lead to failure or deterioration of concrete
■ May have adverse impact on the structure with time

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 TYPES
CONSTRUCTIONOF
ERRORS

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 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
ERRORS
1. Adding Water to Concrete 6. Movement of Formwork
2. Improper Alignment of 7. Premature Removal of Shores
Formwork or Reshores
3. Improper Consolidation 8. Settling of Concrete
or Compaction of
Concrete 9. Settling of the Subgrade
A. Bug Holes 10. Vibration of Freshly
B. Honeycombing Placed Concrete
C. Over-consolidation 11. Improper Finishing of Flat
4. Improper Curing Concrete
Surface
5. Improper Location of
Reinforcement Steel
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 1. ADDING WATER TO
CAUSES
CONCRETE EFFECTS
Addition of water to • Concrete with
the concrete in a lowered
delivery truck to strength and
increase slump and reduced
decrease pouring or durability
placement effort
• W/c ratio of the
concrete
increases, the
strength and
durability will
decrease

Water is commonly Scaling, crazing, and

added during dusting of the
finishing of structural concrete
member

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 2. IMPROPER ALIGNMENT OF
FORMWORK
■ EFFECTS
– Discontinuities on the surface of the concrete
 These discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances
 Their occurrence may be more critical in areas that are subjected to high velocity
flow of water, where cavitation-erosion may be induced, or in lock chambers
where the “rubbing” surfaces must be straight

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 3. IMPROPER CONSOLIDATION OR
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE
■ EFFECTS
– Improper compaction of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the
most common being bug holes, honeycombing, and cold joints

BUG HONEYCOMBIN OVER-

HOLES G CONSOLIDATIO
N

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 3A 3B
3C
BUG HONEYCOMBING
OVER-CONSOLIDATION
HOLES

These are formed when These can be reduced by It is usually defined as a

small pockets of air inserting the situation in which the
or
water are trapped more frequently, and as
vibrator consolidation effort
close as possible to the causes all of the
against the forms. form face without coarse
A change in the mixture touching the form, and bottom while
aggregate the to
to settle
to make it less “sticky” slower withdrawal of the paste rises to the
the
situation occurs, it
or the use of small vibrator. surface.
reasonableIf this
to
is
vibrators worked near Obviously, any ormake
all of it that there is a problem
conclude
been
the formused
has to these defects a poorly proportioned
of
eliminate bug
help muc easier for concrete rather than too
holes. damage-
h any
initiate much consolidation.
causing
mechanism to of the
deterioration
concrete.

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 4. IMPROPER
CURING
Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction process. Unless
concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will
not develop the characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to provide
durability.
■ SYMPTOMS
– Various types of cracking and surface disintegration
– Failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths, structural cracking may
occur

26
 5. IMPROPER LOCATION OF
REINFORCING STEEL
■ CAUSE
– This section refers to reinforcing steel that is improperly located or is not
adequately secured in the proper location
■ EFFECTS
– First, the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural
cracking or failure. E.g.is the placement of welded wire mesh in floor slabs. In many
cases, the mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently crack
because the steel is not in the proper location

– The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing
steel is one of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the
surface of the concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much
easier for corrosion to begin

27
 6. MOVEMENT OF
■ CAUSE
FORMWORK
– Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is going from a
fluid to a rigid material may induce cracking and separation within the
concrete
■ EFFECTS
– A crack open to the surface will allow access of water to the interior of the
concrete.
– An internal void may give rise to freezing or corrosion problems if the void
becomes saturated

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7. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF
SHORES OR RESHORES
■ CAUSE
– If shores or reshores are removed too soon, the concrete affected may become
overstressed and cracked
■ EFFECTS
– In extreme cases there may be major failures

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 8. SETTLING OF THE
■ CAUSE
CONCRETE
– During the period between placing and initial setting of the concrete, the
heavier components of the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity
– This situation may be aggravated by the use of highly fluid concretes
■ EFFECTS
– If any restraint tends to prevent this settling, cracking or separations may
result.
– These cracks or separations may also develop problems of corrosion or
freezing if saturated

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 9. SETTLING OF THE
SUBGRADE
■ CAUSE
– Settling of the subgrade during the period after the concrete begins to become
rigid but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight
■ EFFECTS
– Cracking may also occur
– Sags and Humps (Localized Depressions) may occur

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 10. VIBRATION OF FRESHLY
PLACED CONCRETE
■ CAUSE
– Most construction sites are subjected to vibration from various sources, such as
blasting, pile driving, and from the operation of construction equipment.
Freshly placed concrete is vulnerable to weakening of its properties.
■ EFFECTS
– If subjected to forces, concrete matrix may disrupt during setting

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 11. IMPROPER FINISHING OF FLAT
CONCRETE SURFACE
A. Adding water to the surface: Evidence that water is being added to the surface is
the presence of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The brush is
dipped in water and water is “slung” onto the surface being finished.
B. Timing of finishing: Final finishing operations must be done after the concrete
has taken its initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period depends
on the amounts of water, cement, and admixtures in the mixture but primarily
on the temperature of the concrete surface. On a partially shaded slab, the
part in the sun will usually be ready to finish before the part in the shade.

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 11. IMPROPER FINISHING OF FLAT
CONCRETE SURFACE
C. Adding cement to the surface: This practice is often done to dry up bleed water
to allow finishing to proceed and will result in a thin cement-rich coating which
will craze or flake off easily.
D. Use of tamper: A tamper or “jitterbug” is unnecessarily used on many jobs. This
tool forces the coarse aggregate away from the surface and can make finishing
easier. This practice, however, creates a cement-rich mortar surface layer which
can scale or craze. A jitterbug should not be allowed with a well designed mixture.
If a harsh mixture must be finished, the judicious use of a jitterbug could be
useful.
E. Jointing: The most frequent cause of cracking in flatwork is the incorrect spacing
and
location of joints.

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 IMPROPER FINISHING OF IMPROPER CURING- PLASTIC
FLAT CONCRETE SHRINKAGE
SURFACE

MOVEMENT OF SETTLING OF SETTLING OF

FORMWORK CONCRETE SUBGRADE

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 EFFECT OF DESIGN
CONSTRUCTION
AND
ERRORS
ON REPAIR
&
REHABILITATIO
3
S.NO. DESIGN ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Plate Bonding Method

• RC Jacketing of beams & columns with RCC
1. Inadequate Structural Design • Strengthening by Fibre Reinforced Polymer
(FRP)

• RC Jacketing
2. Poor Design Details • Increase in longitudinal reinforcement

• Providing struts for span reduction of beam

2A Abrupt Changes in Section
• Concrete strengthening

• Installing Ferro-cement plates at corners

Insufficient Reinforcement at Corners
2B • Providing vertical reinforcement at
and Openings
corners, junction of walls

2C Inadequate Provision for Deflection Rebuilding portions of the wall

• Fixing of drainage pipes

• Drainage of sloped roof with tiles
2D Inadequate Provision for Drainage • Waterproofing
• Correction of floor leaks & traps

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S.NO. DESIGN ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

2E Insufficient travel in expansion joints Repair or replace expansion joints

• Grout injection
• Concrete ring beams & roof &
2F Incompatibility of materials floor substitution
• Bond coats

• Bed Joints Reinforcement Technique

2G Neglect of Creep Effect
• Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite (CFRP)

2H Rigid Joints Between Precast Units Shear Keys/ Mechanical Anchors

• Cutting new expansion joints, jacking

Unanticipated Shear Stresses in Piers,
2I
Columns, or Abutments
2J Inadequate Joint Spacing in Slabs
structure, isolation bearings, removal
of portions of structure
• Providing struts for span reduction of
beam
• Reducing dead loads and live loads
• External stressing
• FRP Method
• Plate Bonding

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S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Epoxy Coating (Epoxy Resin + Hardener)

1. Adding Water to Concrete • Polymer Resin based Coating
• Shotcrete/ Gunite

• Shear Keys
2. Improper Alignment of Formwork • Preformed Foam Gaskets
• Cast In Place Foam
Improper Consolidation or Compaction
3 Fibre Reinforced Concrete
of Concrete
3A Bug Holes Epoxy Resin
• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar (PMM)
• Polyester Putty
3B Honeycombing • Epoxy putty
• Emulsified Styrene Butadiene
Rubber(SBR) Polymer

• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar (PMM)

3C Over-consolidation • Polymer Modified Concrete (PMC)
• Epoxy Resin

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S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Elastomeric sealer
• ‘Flexible’ epoxy filler
4. Improper Curing • Membrane or special mortar
• Strengthening by Fibre Reinforced Polymer
(FRP)

• Introducing new reinforcement bars

5. Improper Location of Reinforcement Steel for structural connections
• Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for
durability
• Coarse aggregate and grout
• Dry-pack
6. Movement of Formwork • Waterproofing by Acrylic Polymer or
SBR Polymer

• Cutting new expansion joints, jacking

structure, isolation bearings, removal
7. Premature Removal of Shores or Reshores of portions of structure
• Caulking for live cracks

40
S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings

(FBEC)
• Cathodic Protection
8. Settling of The Concrete • Chloride Removal
• Realkalisation
• Epoxy
• FRP Strengthening

• Patching with Base Repair

9. Settling of The Subgrade • Overlay Patches
• Grader Patching

• Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

10. Vibration of Freshly Placed Concrete • Re-concreting
• Hardened Cement Paste (HCP)

• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar (PMM)

with Bond Coat
11. Improper Finishing of Flat Concrete Surface • Shotcrete with Finishing Plaster and
Water Curing
• Polyurethane Coat

41
 CONCLUSION
■ A structure, if regularly maintained, will not need extensive repair and rehabilitation
and the cost of the same would also go down.
■ Design errors' onset is during the stage of planning. These can be prevented by
careful
and thorough inspection of drawing at each stage.
■ Construction errors' commence during the stage of execution and can be controlled
by inspection, excepting when environmental factors govern the error.
■ Even after the identification of repair/rehabilitation method, it is significant to know
the specifications of the materials to be used, so that these can be altered
depending upon the need.

42
 REFERENCES
■ http://theconstructor.org/concrete/design-detailing-errors-concrete-construction/8190/
■ http://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-errors-during-concreting-at-site/8184/
■ http://nairaproject.com/projects/080.html
■ Concrete Problems & Repair Techniques- Professor Khaled A. Soudki, Peng
■ CPWD Handbook on Repair & Rehabilitation of RCC Buildings
■ Repair & Rehabilitation of Structures- Prof. M. Vijayalakshmi
■ WSDOT Maintenance Manual- Chapter 3- Page 3 to 28

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