IR Paper 1 Part II Theories &

Approaches
1. Capitalism 8. Idealism 15. Nationalism
2. Communism 9. Imperialism 16. Post Modernism
3. Constructivism 10. Irredentism 17. Realism
4. Cosmopolitanism 11. Isolationism 18. Regionalism
5. Embedded 12. Liberal 19. Terrorism
Liberalism Internationalism
6. Feminism 13. Mercantilism
7. Functionalism 14. Multilateralism

1
 Capitalism
• Every Society ‘has some method of organizing
its Material Life’
• It ‘must produce Goods and Services that are
deemed Useful and/or Desirable by the
Society’
• It ‘must distribute them for Consumption’
• Management of Material Life ‘are referred to
as Social Formations’

2
 Capitalism
• Some of the other Social Formations are:
I. ‘Feudalism of Western Europe in the Middle
Ages’
II. ‘Centralization of Production and Distribution
Decisions in the Soviet Union’
III. ‘Capitalisms of Modern Japan, Western Europe,
and the United States’

3
 Capitalism
• It ‘is based on Private Ownership of the Means
of Production and their Operation for a Profit’
• ‘Characteristics of Capitalism include’:
I. ‘Private Property’
II. ‘Capital Accumulation’
III. ‘Waged Labor’
IV. ‘Voluntary Exchange’
V. ‘Price System’
VI. ‘Competitive Markets’
4
 Capitalism
• ‘Decision Making and Investment are
determined by the Owners of the Factors of
Production’
• ‘Prices and the Distribution of Goods are
determined by Competition in the Market’
• Prominent feature of Capitalism ‘is the control
and usage of the Social Surplus’

5
 Capitalism
• Social Surplus ‘is whenever a Society is able to
produce more than what is needed to sustain
Material Life’
• ‘3 Basic Methods of Organization’:
I. ‘Traditional’
II. ‘Command’
III. ‘Market’

6
 Capitalism
• Every ‘actual Social Formation is to some
degree a mixture of all 3 Organizational
Principles’
• Capitalism ‘replaced Feudalism in Western
Europe between 1400 and 1800’
• It ‘has been carried across the World by
processes of Globalization’
• By the end of the 18th Century, ‘it became the
dominant Global Economic System’
7
 Capitalism
• In the 20th Century, ‘Capitalism combined
elements of Planned Economies’
• ‘Mixed Economy became its dominant form’

8
 Capitalism
• Features of Capitalism:
I. ‘Capital was used to produce Goods & Services
to make more wealth’ instead of being a form of
Wealth
II. ‘Markets provide information regarding
Allocation of Resources’

9
 Capitalism
• Features of Capitalism:
III. Capitalism has 2 forms of Power, Market and
State’:
• Markets ‘regulate where Resources would be used
and the Value they would entail’
• State ‘would ensure the regulation of Markets’

10
 Capitalism
• Capitalism can be summarized as:
I. Capital Accumulation:
• ‘Production for Profit’
II. Commodity Production:
• ‘Production for exchange on a Market to maximize
Exchange Value’
III. Private Ownership of the Means of Production
IV. Waged Labor
V. Investment for Profit

11
 Capitalism
• Capitalism can be summarized as:
IV. Use of the Price Mechanism to allocate
Resources

12
 Capitalism
• Weaknesses:
1. ‘Inequality’
2. ‘Wastage’
3. ‘Anti-Social’
4. ‘Negative Externalities’
5. ‘Vested Interest Groups’
6. ‘Monopolies’
7. ‘Closure of Small/Local Businesses’

13
 Communism
• Derived from the ‘Latin word Communis which
means belonging to Everyone’
• Communism ‘is a Political and Economic
Doctrine’
• ‘Aims to replace Private Property and a Profit-
based Economy with Public Ownership and
Communal control of the Means of
Production’
• ‘It is a form of Socialism’
14
 Communism
• Key Characteristics:
I. ‘Fruits of the Labor are shared equally’
II. ‘Property is commonly held’
III. ‘Individuals contribute what they can and
consume only what they need’
IV. ‘Treat each other Equally and Fairly’
V. ‘Acquisitive Behavior is unthinkable’
VI. ‘Nationalized Industry’

15
 Communism
• Key Characteristics:
VII. ‘Quotas for Production’
VIII.‘High Rates of Employment’

16
 Communism
• History:
– ‘Began in the 19th Century’
– ‘Became a Global Political & Economic Ideology in
early part of the 20th Century’
– ‘Lenin was the Foremost Proponent’
– Lenin ‘modified ideas of Marxism to his & his
Party’s Benefits’
– Russia ‘was an unlikely setting for the Proletarian
Revolution that Marx had predicted’

17
 Communism
• History:
– ‘Economy was primarily Agricultural and its
Industrial Proletariat was small’
– ‘Farming Land was owned by Nobles’
– ‘Russia was nearer to Feudalism than Capitalism’
– Lenin ‘made 2 changes to the Theory and Practice
of Communism as envisioned by Marx’
– ‘Ideology was later renamed as Marxism-
Leninism’

18
 Communism
• History:
– 1st, Lenin ‘envisioned that Evolution could not and
should not be made by the Proletariat but had to
be made by Workers and Peasants led by an Elite
Vanguard Party’
– Lenin ‘claimed that the Masses were unable to
discern their true Interests & couldn’t be trusted
to govern themselves’

19
 Communism
• History:
– ‘Strict Discipline was necessary if the Party was to
guide the Masses to Revolution’
– 2nd, Lenin ‘implied that Communist Revolution
would not begin in advanced Capitalist Countries
because Workers there were imbued with Reform-
minded instead of Revolutionary Class
Consciousness’

20
 Communism
• History:
– After exploiting the Colonies, ‘Capitalists bribed
Workers at home with slightly higher Wages, a
shorter Workweek, and other Reforms’
– Lenin argued that ‘Revolution would begin in
Economically-backward Countries and in the
Oppressed and Exploited Colonies’
– Lenin ‘put his Ideas into practice after the success
of the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917’

21
 Communism
• History:
– ‘Soviet Leadership supported Communist Parties
and Trade Union Movements in Europe’
– ‘Funded Revolutionary Activities in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America’
– ‘Engaged in a massive Arms Race with the West’
– After the collapse of USSR, ‘the dream of
Communism shattered’

22
 Constructivism
• Approach to International Relations ‘that
highlights the importance of Social Dimension
of World Politics’
• Approach ‘insists that International Relations
cannot be reduced to Rational Action and
Interaction within Material Constraints or
within Institutional Constraints at the
International and National levels’

23
 Constructivism
• State Interaction ‘is not amongst Fixed
National Interests but must be understood as
a pattern of action that shapes and is shaped
by Identities over time’
• According to Constructivists, ‘International
Institutions have both Regulative and
Constitutive Functions’

24
 Constructivism
• Regulative Norms ‘set Basic Rules for
Standards of Conduct by prescribing or
proscribing certain Behaviors’
• ‘Constitutive Norms define a Behavior and
assign Meanings to that Behavior’
• Without Constitutive Norms, ‘Actions would
be unintelligible’

25
 Constructivism
• States ‘have a Corporate Identity that
generates Basic State Goals’
• State Goals can be ‘Physical Security, Stability,
Recognition by Others, and Economic
Development’
• ‘How States fulfill their Goals depends upon
their Social Identities’

26
 Constructivism
• Social Identity is ‘how States see themselves in
relation to other States in International
Society’
• On the basis of these Identities, ‘States
construct their National Interests’
• Constructivism emphasizes that the
‘International System consists of Social
Relationships as well as Material Capabilities’

27
 Cosmopolitanism
• Cosmopolitanism is ‘the Ideology that all
Human Beings belong to a Single Community,
based on a Shared Morality’
• International Society ‘is defined in terms of
Social Bonds that link People, Communities,
and Societies’
• It is ‘a Political-Moral Philosophy that puts
People as Citizens of the World rather than of
a particular Nation-State’
28
 Cosmopolitanism
• ‘Emphasis is on Social Bonds rather than
Nation States’

29
 Cosmopolitanism
• Characteristics of Cosmopolitanism:
1. Cosmopolitan Theorists ‘reject the Conception of
World Politics as rooted in Inter-State conflict’
2. Theorists ‘do not draw a distinct line between
Domestic and International Politics’
3. Cosmopolitanism sees ‘International Institutions
and Policy Regimes as useful for leading towards
Full Sovereignty in People rather than in States’

30
 Cosmopolitanism
• Characteristics of Cosmopolitanism:
4. ‘Society of States will evolve into Societies of
People’

31
 Cosmopolitanism
• ‘3 ways in which Cosmopolitanism has taken
prevalence’:
I. ‘More People travel further than ever before
and are increasingly exposed to new Customs,
Cuisines, and Fashion’
II. Cosmopolitanism ‘urges People to see
themselves as Citizens of the World’

32
 Cosmopolitanism
• ‘3 ways in which Cosmopolitanism has taken
prevalence’:
III. A ‘New Order of Trans-National Political
Structures has been established which limits the
Sovereignty of States & override their Authority
in particular Spheres of Activity’ (UN & EU)

33
 Embedded Liberalism
• A ‘Global Economic System set up to support a
combination of Free Trade with the Freedom
for States to enhance their Provision of
Welfare Activities and to regulate their
Economies to reduce Unemployment’
• The 1st Objective of Embedded Liberalism ‘was
to revive Free Trade’

34
 Embedded Liberalism
• 2nd Objective was ‘to allow National
Governments the Freedom to provide
generous Welfare Programs and to intervene
in their Economies to maintain Full
Employment’
• The ‘latter promotes Greater Efficiency and
higher levels of Economic Growth’

35
 Embedded Liberalism
• Word ‘Embedded modifies the extent to
which Liberalism is often associated with
Policies and Arguments designed to minimize
the role of the State vis-à-vis the Market’

36
 Feminism
• ‘Range of Political Movements, Ideologies, and
Social Movements that shared Common Goal’
• The Goal was ‘to define, establish, and achieve
Political, Economic, Personal, and Social Rights
for Women that are equal to those of Men’
• Feminism ‘seeks to establish Equal
Opportunities for Women in Education and
Employment’

37
 Feminism
• Feminism in International Relations ‘emerged
to challenge the Fundamental Biases of the
Discipline and to highlight the ways in which
Women were excluded from Analyses of the
State, International Political Economy, and
International Security’
• There is a ‘major Imbalance between Male
and Female Academics’ in International
Relations
38
 Feminism
• Feminists ‘attack the ways in which Mens’
experiences are projected as if they represent
some Universal standpoint’
• According to the Feminists, ‘Realists and
Liberal Thoughts have been drawn from
Culturally-defined Notions of Masculinity and
Power’
• IR Feminists ‘argue that the Discipline is
inherently Masculine in nature’
39
 Feminism
• Feminist International Relations ‘involves
looking at how International Politics affects
and is affected by both Men and Women’
• It examines ‘how the Core Concepts of IR are
themselves Gendered’
• E.g. War, Security, Diplomacy, Law, etc.

40
 Feminism
• International Relations Discipline ‘continues to
lack analysis of the Experiences, Actions, and
Ideas of Girls and Women in the International
Arena’

41
 Functionalism
• Functionalists ‘focus on Common Interests
and Needs shared by States in a process of
Global Integration triggered by the erosion of
State Sovereignty’
• Functionalism ‘is a pioneer in Globalization
Theory and Strategy’
• ‘Concept must be understood in the context of
the Process of Integration amongst States’

42
 Functionalism
• Functionalism ‘is more applied in Western
Europe because it has developed the most in
terms of Integration’
• International Cooperation ‘begins by dealing
with specific Trans-National Problems where
there is prospect of applying Specialized
Technical Knowledge to solve it’

43
 Functionalism
• Success of the Arrangements ‘will lead to
further efforts to replicate the experience in
an ever-widening Area’
• Functionalism is based on the idea that
‘Governments begin to transfer Functional
Responsibilities to International Agencies’
• Agencies will have ‘Specific Mandates to deal
with Issues over Areas needing Cooperation’

44
 Functionalism
• ‘Principle of Territorial and Legal Sovereignty
weakens with Time’ in Functionalism

45
 Functionalism
• Principles of Functionalism are:
I. ‘Goals include Peace & Prosperity for all’
II. ‘State uses Policies of Economics & Political Acts
of Will to encourage Negotiations & Solutions of
Issues’
III. ‘Basic idea is to reach at a Consensus to achieve
the set Agendas’

46
 Functionalism
• Principles of Functionalism are:
IV. ‘International Organizations play a substantial
role to formulate Policies & implement them
too’

47
 Functionalism
• Criticism of Functionalism:
I. The Idea that ‘it is possible both to separate
Technical from Political Issues and subordinate
the latter to the former is somewhat naïve’
II. ‘Merits of Functionalism are limited to those
Parts of the World that share the Welfarist
Values that Functionalism claims to promote’

48
 Functionalism
• Criticism of Functionalism:
III. Based on an Optimistic view that the ‘Benefits
of Technical Cooperation will generate Spillover
Effects in other Areas’

49
 Idealism
• Idealism holds that ‘a State should make its
Internal Political Philosophy the goal of its
Foreign Policy’
• This is ‘referred to as Utopianism’
• Dominated the Study of International
Relations ‘from the end of the WWI until the
late 1930s’
• Woodrow Wilson was a strong proponent

50
 Idealism
• It is widely believed that ‘Idealists are out of
touch with Current Thinking’
• ‘Put Moral Principles before Practical &
Prudent Considerations’
• Idealists ‘seek a perfect World’
• ‘Came to prominence in reaction to the
carnage of the WWI’

51
 Idealism
• They ‘represent the World as it ought to be’
• ‘Wilson’s 14 Points is the Manifesto that the
Idealists aspired to follow & implement’
• Idealists were of the view that ‘Procedures of
Parliamentary Democracy could be firmly
established in International Diplomacy’
• Central Idea of Idealism is ‘the Belief that
what Unites Human Beings is more important
than what Divides them’
52
 Imperialism
• Derived from the Latin word ‘Imperium which
means to Rule over Large Territories’
• Imperialism is:
– ‘A Policy of extending a Country’s Power and
influence through Colonization, use of Military
Force, or other Means’
• Policy is ‘aimed at conquering or controlling
Foreign People and Territory’

53
 Imperialism
• Term ‘applies to Western Political and
Economic Dominance in Asia and Africa’ in the
19th & 20th Centuries
• There are ‘2 Forms of Imperialism’:
1. Formal Imperialism:
• ‘Defined as Physical Control or Colonial Rule’
2. Informal Imperialism:
• ‘Control through less Direct Methods’

54
 Imperialism
• Imperial State ‘seeks to derive a Benefit of
some sort from those States and Peoples
unable to defend themselves against its
superior Military and/or Economic Force’

55
 Imperialism
• Benefits of Imperialism are:
I. ‘Power’
II. ‘Prestige’
III. ‘Strategic Advantage’
IV. ‘Cheap Labor’
V. ‘Natural Resources’
VI. ‘Access to New Markets’

56
 Imperialism
• Imperial States ‘used Conquest and
Occupation’ as a primary mean
• ‘Transportation of Settlers and Missionaries
played important roles in maintaining Effective
Control’
• ‘Period of European Expansion from the late
15th Century is associated with Imperialism’
• Mandatory ‘to divide European Imperialism in
2 Phases’
57
 Imperialism
• ‘1st Wave was from 1500 A.D.’
• It ‘pursued Mercantilist Economic Policies and
involved Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and
Holland’
• ‘2nd Wave began during the 1870s and finally
ended in 1945’
• 2nd Wave is also ‘referred to as the New
Imperialism’

58
 Imperialism
• 2nd Wave ‘was primarily led by Britain’
• By late 1800s, ‘Britain competed with
Emerging Powers of Germany and United
States’
• ‘Establishing Colonies became a Source of
Pride as well as Economic Benefit’
• Europeans felt ‘they had an Obligation to
bring their Superior Cultures to these
Colonies’
59
 Imperialism
• New Imperialism:
– ‘One of the 1st Targets for the New Imperialism
was Africa’
– African Countries ‘were too weak to stop a
European Army’
– ‘Scramble for Africa began with Belgium claiming
the Congo River Valley’
– ‘France then claimed Algeria and its Ex-Envoy built
the Suez Canal’

60
 Imperialism
• New Imperialism:
– ‘Britain took over Egypt to control the Suez Canal,
which was crucial to its Shipping Routes to Asia’
– ‘France colonized Tunisia and Morocco’
– ‘Italians took Libya’
– By the early 1900s, ‘most of Africa was taken over
by European Colonists’

61
 Imperialism
• Five Competing Theories of Imperialism:
1. For Conservatives:
• Imperialism ‘was necessary to preserve the existing
Social Order in the Imperial States’
• Their ‘Internal Social Conflicts could be contained and
channeled abroad’

62
 Imperialism
• Five Competing Theories of Imperialism:
2. For Marxist:
• Lenin’s famous argument, ‘Imperialism represents the
Final Stage of Capitalism’
• Marxist ‘claimed WWI was the culmination of the
Competition amongst Capitalist States for new
Markets and Investment Opportunities’

63
 Imperialism
• Five Competing Theories of Imperialism:
3. For Liberals:
• ‘Increasing concentration of Wealth within Imperial
States led to Under-Consumption for the Masses’
• ‘Overseas Expansion was a way to reduce Costs of
Production and to secure new Consumer Markets’
• Imperialism ‘was a Policy Choice, it wasn’t inevitable’
• Imperialism ‘would help the Masses earn more & live
a better Life in the home Country’

64
 Imperialism
• Five Competing Theories of Imperialism:
4. For Realists:
• Argued that ‘Imperialism is primarily a manifestation
of the Balance of Power’
• Through Imperialism, ‘States try to achieve a
favorable change in the Status Quo’
• Main Purpose of Imperialism ‘is to decrease the
Political and Strategic Vulnerability of the State’

65
 Imperialism
• Five Competing Theories of Imperialism:
5. Social-Psychological Theories:
• Some ‘States had Ambitions of Unlimited Forcible
Expansion which was institutionalized by the Warrior
Class’
• Warrior Class ‘was created because of a Legitimate
need for the State to defend itself’
• Warrior Class ‘relied on Imperialism to perpetuate its
existence’

66
 Irredentism
• Political Movement ‘intended to Reclaim and
Reoccupy a Lost or Unredeemed Area’
• ‘Territorial Claims are justified on the basis of’:
I. ‘Real or Imagined National and Historic
Affiliation’ (an Area formerly part of that State)
II. ‘Ethnic Affiliations’ (an Area inhabited by that
Nation or Ethnic Group)

67
 Irredentism
• Irredentism is ‘often advocated by Nationalist
Movements’
• It is a ‘common way to express a Claim to
Adjacent Territories on the Grounds of
Historical or Ethnic Association’
• Irredentists ‘use the adjective Greater as a
prefix to the Country’s Name’

68
 Irredentism
• Irredentism ‘is derived from the Italian phrase
Terra Irredentia which means Unredeemed
Land’
• This is a ‘Territorial Claim made by One State
to Areas under the Sovereign Authority of
another State’
• Irredentism is ‘different from Secession where
a Minority breaks away from an existing State
to form one of its own’
69
 Irredentism
• Irredentism is ‘motivated by 2 Aims’:
I. ‘Drive to expand, to increase Power and/or
Wealth’
II. ‘Affinity for Kith and Kin’
• ‘Irredentist Goals are pursued violently’
• It is ‘justified by helping Ethnic Minorities and
liberating them from the State in which they
presently live’

70
 Irredentism
• ‘2 Reasons why Irredentist Claims often
worsen Status and Conditions of People’ in
those Areas:
I. Government ‘further discriminates against an
Ethnicity perceiving it as a threat to National
Security’
II. The ‘Central Theme is Territory rather than
People’, where the latter become Pawns in the
Irredentist Game

71
 Irredentism
1. Afghanistan:
– The Afghan Border with Pakistan is known as the
Durand Line
– ‘Agreed to by Afghanistan and British India in
1893’
– ‘Pashtun Tribes inhabiting the Border Areas were
divided into 2 Nations’
– ‘Afghanistan never accepted the Borders’

72
 Irredentism
1. Afghanistan
– ‘Clashes broke out in the 1950s and 1960s
between Afghanistan and Pakistan’
– ‘All Afghan Governments have declared a Long-
term Goal of reuniting all Pashtun-dominated
Areas under Afghanistan’

73
 Irredentism
2. India:
– ‘Akhand Bharat which literally means Undivided
India’
– ‘An Irredentist call to re-unite Pakistan and
Bangladesh with India to form an Undivided
India’ as it existed before Partition in 1947
– Call for Akhand Bharat has often been ‘raised by
Indian Nationalistic Political Organizations’ such
as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and
BJP
74
 Irredentism
3. China:
– ‘China considered Hong Kong & Macau to be
Chinese Territories under British and Portuguese
Occupation’
– ‘Claim to the Areas was on Historical & Ethnic
basis’

75
 Isolationism
• A ‘Foreign Policy position where a Nation’s
Interest is best served by keeping the Affairs of
other Countries at a distance’
• ‘Motivation for limiting International
Involvement is to avoid being drawn into
undesirable Conflicts’
• Nation ‘commits to a minimal Diplomatic
Participation in the International System’

76
 Isolationism
• Main Idea behind Isolationism is:
– ‘A State will be more Secure and less prone to
External Interference if it limits its contact with
other States’

77
 Isolationism
• Factors leading to Isolationism:
1. State ‘must already be relatively free from the
Threat of Invasion or be so Powerful that it
doesn’t need to form Alliances to defend itself’
2. ‘State needs to be Economically Self-Sufficient’
3. Requires ‘either Political Consensus or strong
Authoritarian Rule to withstand Domestic
Challenges to its Foreign Policy’

78
 Isolationism
• Factors leading to Isolationism:
4. A State that is Geographically Remote or
surrounded by a Mountain Range, Ocean, or
Desert ‘is in a significantly better position to
pursue Isolationism than one that is Land-
locked’

79
 Isolationism
• ‘United States pursued Isolationism
successfully’
• It was ‘adopted by President George
Washington who argued that’:
– ‘America should steer clear of Permanent Alliances
with any portion of the Foreign World’
• Washington wanted to consolidate American
Independence’

80
 Isolationism
• ‘Policy ended with the US Involvement in
WWI’
• After the Treaty of Versailles 1919, ‘US once
again returned to its Policy of Isolation until
WWII’

81
 Liberal Internationalism
• A Foreign Policy Doctrine ‘that argues that
Liberal States should intervene in other
Sovereign States in order to pursue Liberal
Objectives’
• Such Intervention ‘can include both Military
Invasion and Humanitarian Aid’
• ‘Aims to transform International Relations so
that Countries conform to Models of Peace,
Freedom, and Prosperity’ as enjoyed by
Liberal Democracies 82
 Liberal Internationalism
• 3 Ways to Achieve Liberal Internationalism:
1. Commercial Liberalism:
• ‘Promotes the idea of Free Trade and Commerce
across Borders’
• ‘Economic Interdependence amongst States will
reduce Incentives to use Force and raise the cost of
doing so’

83
 Liberal Internationalism
• 3 Ways to Achieve Liberal Internationalism:
2. Republican Liberalism:
• ‘Endorses the spread of Democracy amongst States’
• So that ‘Governments are accountable to their
Citizens’
• ‘Makes it difficult for Governments to pursue Policies
that promote the Interests of Economic and Military
Elites’

84
 Liberal Internationalism
• 3 Ways to Achieve Liberal Internationalism:
3. Institutional Liberalism:
• ‘To promote the Rule of Law’

85
 Mercantilism
• Mercantilism ‘promoted Governmental
Regulation of a Nation’s Economy’
• The ‘purpose was augmenting State Power at
the expense of Rival National Powers
Economically’
• ‘Includes a National Economic Policy aimed at
accumulating Monetary Reserves through a
positive Balance of Trade’
• This is ‘referred to as Economic Nationalism’
86
 Mercantilism
• Philosophy states that Economic Management
‘should be part of the State’s pursuit of its
National Interests’ which can be defined in
terms of:
– ‘Wealth’
– ‘Power’
– ‘Prestige’
• ‘Mercantilism was centered on England and
France’
87
 Mercantilism
• Mercantilism ‘arose in France in the early 16th
Century in 1539’
• In England, ‘Mercantilism reached its peak
around 1640–60’

88
 Mercantilism
• Features of Mercantilism:
1. ‘High Tariffs’
2. ‘Forbidding Colonies to Trade with other
Nations’
3. ‘Banning the Export of Gold and Silver, even for
Payments’
4. ‘Forbidding Trade to be carried in Foreign Ships’
5. ‘Subsidies on Exports’
6. ‘Limiting Wages’
89
 Mercantilism
• Features of Mercantilism:
7. ‘Maximizing the use of Domestic Resources’
8. ‘Restricting Domestic Consumption through
Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade’ (Quotas,
Embargoes)
9. ‘Encouraging Exports’

90
 Mercantilism
• Mercantilists ‘are not interested in improving
the Quality of Life of Humanity or of fostering
Mutual Cooperation amongst States’
• ‘Primary goal is the maximization of Power’
• ‘Economic Activity is the vehicle for achieving
this end’

91
 Mercantilism
• Mercantilist States do 2 things:
I. ‘Re-Orient their Domestic Economy to produce a
favorable Balance of Trade goal, to produce
Goods for Exports while at the same time
keeping Imports low’
II. ‘Gear their Industries to producing Value-Added
Products from cheap imported Raw Material by
discouraging Agricultural Production in favor of
Manufacturing’

92
 Multilateralism
• Multilateralism is ‘when multiple Countries
work together on a given Issue’
• It is ‘also termed as International Governance
of the Many’
• ‘Multilateralism is necessary to’:
– ‘Bind the Great Powers’
– ‘Discourage Unilateralism’
– ‘Give the Small Powers a Voice’

93
 Multilateralism
• E.g. UN & WTO

94
 Multilateralism
• 3 Characteristics of Multilateralism:
1. Non-Discrimination:
• States ‘should carry out their Treaty Obligations
without any Exceptions based on Alliances’
• E.g. Obligation of States to extend MFN Status to all
other States in the Trading Regime governed by WTO
2. Indivisibility:
• For Multilateral Security Regimes, Peace be regarded
as Indivisible for and by each Signatory to the
collective Security Treaty’

95
 Multilateralism
• 3 Characteristics of Multilateralism:
3. Diffuse Reciprocity:
• ‘Continuity in the application of the Principles of Non-
Discrimination and Indivisibility’
• ‘Episodic Instances of Inter-State Cooperation do not
qualify as Multilateralism’
• ‘Joint Participation has to take place over an extended
period of Time’

96
 Nationalism
• ‘Shared Group Feeling in a Geographical and
Demographic Region is Nationalism’
• Nationalism ‘involves an Individual identifying
with or becoming attached to One’s Nation’
• ‘Nationalism draws Boundaries amongst
People’

97
 Nationalism
• Identification of some Traits amongst Group
Members may be:
– ‘Shared Language’
– ‘Religion’
– ‘Ethnicity’
– ‘Culture’
• Ideologically, People belonging to a particular
Group ‘should inhabit a particular Area and
control it’
98
 Nationalism
• 2 Perspectives of Nationalism:
1. Primordialist Perspective:
• ‘Nationalism is the result of the Evolution of Humans
into identifying with Groups’ (Ethnic Groups)
• Nationalism is ‘based upon Kinship and Common
Ancestry’
• ‘Kinship Group Affiliation and Solidarity does not
require Actual Relatedness but can include Imagined
Relatedness’

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 Nationalism
• 2 Perspectives of Nationalism:
2. Modernist Perspective:
• Nationalism ‘arises in Modern Societies with having
an Industrial Economy capable of’:
– ‘Self-Sustainability’
– ‘Central Supreme Authority’
– ‘Centralized Language’

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 Post-Modernism
• Post-Modernism is ‘defined by an Attitude of
Skepticism or Distrust toward Grand
Narratives, Ideologies, and Rationality,
including the existence of Objective Reality
and Absolute Truth’
• Post-Modernism asserts that ‘Knowledge and
Truth are the products of Unique Systems of
Social, Historical, and Political Discourse and
Interpretation’
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 Post-Modernism
• Because of this, ‘Truth & Knowledge are
contextual and constructed’
• Post-Modernism can be summed up ‘as having
Respect for Differences’

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 Realism
• Realism is a belief that ‘World Politics
ultimately is always and necessarily a Field of
Conflict amongst Actors pursuing Power’

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 Realism
• 3 Kinds of Realism:
1. Classical Realists:
• ‘Believe that it follows from Human Nature’
2. Neo-Realists:
• ‘Focus upon the structure of the Anarchic State
System’
3. Neo-Classical Realists:
• ‘Believe that it is a result of a combination of the 2
and certain Domestic Variables’

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 Realism
• 4 Central Propositions of Realism:
1. ‘States are the Central Actors in International
Politics rather than Individuals’
2. International Political System ‘is Anarchic as
there is no Supranational Authority that can
enforce Rules over the States’
3. ‘Actors in the International Political System are
rational as their Actions maximize their own Self-
Interest’

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 Realism
• 4 Central Propositions of Realism:
4. ‘All States desire Power so that they can ensure
their own Self-Preservation’

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 Realism
• Hans J. Morgenthau ‘claimed that there was
no Natural Harmony of Interests among
States’
• It is ‘unwise to hope that the struggle for
Power amongst States could be tamed by’:
– ‘International Law’
– ‘Democratization’
– ‘International Commerce’

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 Realism
• Realism ‘conjures up a Grim Image of
International Politics’
• ‘Realists are great Lovers of History’
• According to Realists, ‘History teaches us that
War and Conflict are the norms in
International Relations’
• ‘Proposals for Perpetual Peace have never
materialized’

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 Realism
• Because of this uncompromising view,
‘Realists are referred to as Conservatives and
Pessimists’
• ‘Realism is a subject of endless Criticism’
• Most significant Criticism of Realism relates to
its idea that ‘Wars start because Human
Beings are Evil by nature’
• ‘Neo-Realism refutes this assumption’

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 Realism
• Neo-Realism argue that ‘Wars result because
of the System of International Relations
instead of Human Nature’

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 Regionalism
• ‘Regionalism is 1 of the 3 Constituents of the
International Commercial System’:
I. ‘Multilateralism’
II. ‘Unilateralism’
III. ‘Regionalism’
• E.g. EU

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 Regionalism
• Regionalism revolves around the Idea that ‘as
a Region becomes more Economically
Integrated, it will become Politically Integrated
as well’
• Regionalism is ‘the formation of Inter-State
Associations or Groupings on the basis of
Regions increasing Economic and/or Political
Cooperation’

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 Regionalism
• World Economy ‘has become Tri-Polar with
more than 85% of World Trade concentrated
in 3 Regions’:
I. ‘East Asia’
II. ‘Western Europe’
III. ‘North America’

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 Regionalism
• Regionalism ‘results from the increasing flow
of Goods, People, and Ideas within a Spatial
Entity which, thus, becomes more Integrated
and Cohesive’
• Regionalism can develop in 2 ways:
I. From Below:
• ‘From the Decisions by Companies to Invest and by
People to move within a Region’
II. From Above:
• ‘From Political & State-based efforts’
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 Regionalism
• ‘Reasons for Growth of Regionalism are’:
1. ‘End of the Cold War’
2. ‘Rise of the Asia-Pacific Region’
3. ‘Export-led Re-Orientation of Development
Strategies in the Developing World’

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 Terrorism
• The ‘use or threatened use of Violence in
order to achieve a Political, Religious, or
Ideological Aim’ is defined as Terrorism
• Terrorism is ‘practiced by a wide array of
Organizations to further their Objectives’:
– ‘Nationalist Groups’
– ‘Religious Groups’
– ‘Revolutionaries’
– ‘Ruling Governments’
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 Terrorism
• Originally ‘referred specifically to State
Terrorism as practiced by the French
Government during Reign of Terror’
• Terrorism ‘referred to Acts committed by a
Government’
• Nowadays, ‘it refers to the killing of Innocent
People’

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 Terrorism
• Elements of Terrorism may include:
1. ‘Political/Ideological in Aims and Motives’
2. ‘Violent’
3. Has ‘far-reaching Psychological Repercussions
beyond the immediate Victim or Target’
4. ‘Conducted usually by an Organization’
• Terrorism is ‘far from being a Mindless,
Irrational Force’
• Acts of Terrorism ‘are well planned and
carried out with Military Precision’ 118
 Terrorism
• 4 Kinds of Terrorism:
1. Transnational Organized Crime:
• Organized Groups ‘may use Terrorism to protect their
Private Interests’
• ‘Attack Governments and Individuals who attempt to
reduce their Activity and Influence’
2. Ideological:
• Terrorists ‘use Terror either to change a given
Domestic Policy or to overthrow a particular
Government’

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 Terrorism
• 4 Kinds of Terrorism:
3. State-sponsored Terrorism:
• A State ‘uses Agents to create Political and Economic
Instability in another Country’
• States ‘sponsor Terrorism by giving Logistical Support,
Money, Weapons and Allied Equipment, Training, and
Safe Passage to Terrorists’

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 Terrorism
• 4 Kinds of Terrorism:
4. Nationalistic:
• ‘Used in the Initial Stages of Anti-Colonial/Freedom
Movements’
• ‘Groups/Individuals wishing to secede from a
particular State’ used this

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