THERMODYNAMICS

Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
2
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
 Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
 Energy: The ability to cause changes.
 The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
 Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
 The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
Energy cannot be created
 The first law asserts that energy is a or destroyed; it can only
thermodynamic property. change forms3 (the first law).
 The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
 Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles. Conservation of energy
principle for the human body.
 It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
 Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
 It is used in this text only in the
supporting role.
Heat flows in the direction of
4
decreasing temperature.
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

5
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
 Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
 Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
 English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.
6
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force

7 units.
 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a 8unit

mass at sea level.
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units. 9
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
 System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
 Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
10
  Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
 It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
 Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one 11

inlet and one exit.

 PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM
 Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
 Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
 Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
 Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
 Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
12
Continuum
 Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes,
that is, a continuum.
 The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
 This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with
is large relative to the space Despite the large gaps between
between the molecules. molecules, a substance can be treated as
a continuum because of the very large
 This is the case in practically all
problems. number of molecules even in an
extremely small volume.
 In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can
be modeled as a continuum. 13
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Specific volume at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
14
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
 Equilibrium: A state of balance.
 In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
 Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
 Mechanical equilibrium: If there is A system at two different states.
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
 Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
 Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.

A closed system reaching

15 thermal
equilibrium.
The State Postulate
 The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
 The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
 Simple compressible
system: If a system involves The state of nitrogen is
no electrical, magnetic, fixed by two independent,
gravitational, motion, and intensive properties.
surface tension effects.
16
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.

17
 Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
 Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
 The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
 Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
 Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
 Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
 Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical. 18
The Steady-Flow Process
 The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
 A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
 Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
 Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions,
19
the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
 By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
20
isolated enclosure.
Temperature Scales
 All temperature scales are based on P versus T plots
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
 Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or
32°F). thermometer
 Steam point: A mixture of liquid water using four
and water vapor (with no air) in different gases
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or at different (but
212°F). low) pressures.
 Celsius scale: in SI unit system
 Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
 Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
 Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
 A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a
constant-volume gas thermometer.
A constant-volume gas thermometer
21 would
read 273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases
22
of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some
basic
pressure 23

gages.
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

24
Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
25

result of added weight).

 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
26
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s 27

law.
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 28
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used 29

to measure pressure.
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
The basic barometer. 30
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
 Step 1: Problem Statement
 Step 2: Schematic
 Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
 Step 4: Physical Laws
 Step 5: Properties
 Step 6: Calculations
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):

EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the 31
equations
supplied by the user.
Summary
 Thermodynamics and energy
 Application areas of thermodynamics
 Importance of dimensions and units
 Some SI and English units, Dimensional homogeneity,
Unity conversion ratios
 Systems and control volumes
 Properties of a system
 Density and specific gravity
 State and equilibrium
 The state postulate
 Processes and cycles
 The steady-flow process
 Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Temperature scales
 Pressure
 Variation of pressure with depth
 The manometer and the atmospheric pressure
32
 Problem solving technique
Thank you
 UNIT – II
SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS AND
AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS
 COURSE OUTCOME 1 CO1)
1. Chapter 1: Introduction to Thermodynamics
2. Chapter 2: The First Law and Other Basic Concepts
3. Chapter 3: Volumetric properties of pure fluids
4. Chapter 4: Heat effects

5. Chapter 5: Second law of thermodynamics

ANALYZE and APPLY Second Law Statements, heat
engines, thermodynamics temperature scales, entropy, entropy
changes of an ideal gas, Mathematical Statements of Second
Law, entropy balances-open system, CALCULATION of ideal
work, lost work, Third Law of Thermodynamics.

6. Chapter 6: Thermodynamics properties of fluids

 Objectives
• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.
• Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and second laws
of thermodynamics.
• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible processes,
heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law of
thermodynamics.
• Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Apply the second law to develop the absolute thermodynamic temperature
scale.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines, refrigerators,
and heat pumps.
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients of
performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators.
36
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW
A cup of hot coffee
does not get hotter in
a cooler room.
Transferring
heat to a
paddle wheel
will not cause
it to rotate.

These processes
Transferring cannot occur
heat to a wire even though they
will not are not in violation
generate
of the first law.
electricity. 37
 Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.
The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the
transformations of energy from one form to another with no regard to its
quality. The second law provides the necessary means to determine the
quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy during a process.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the
38
degree of completion of chemical reactions.
 THERMAL ENERGY
RESERVOIRS

A source
supplies
energy in the
Bodies with relatively large thermal form of heat,
masses can be modeled as thermal and a sink
energy reservoirs. absorbs it.

• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x

specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as
the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy reservoirs
because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or39thermal masses.
 HEAT ENGINES

The devices that convert heat to

work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to
work (usually in the form of a
Work can always rotating shaft.)
be converted to 3. They reject the remaining waste
heat directly and heat to a low-temperature sink
completely, but the (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
reverse is not true.
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
Part of the heat devices usually involve a fluid to
received by a heat and from which heat is
engine is transferred while undergoing a
converted to work, cycle. This fluid is called the
while the rest is working fluid.
40
rejected to a sink.
A steam power plant

A portion of the work output

of a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

41
Thermal efficiency

Schematic of
a heat engine.

Some heat engines perform better

Even the most
than others (convert more of the
efficient heat
heat they receive to work).
engines reject
almost one-half
of the energy
they receive as
waste heat.
42
Can we save Qout? In a steam power plant,
the condenser is the
device where large
quantities of waste
heat is rejected to
rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the
plant and save all that
waste energy?
The answer is,
A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without unfortunately, a firm
rejecting some heat to a low-temperature sink. no for the simple
reason that without a
Every heat engine must waste heat rejection process
some energy by transferring it to a in a condenser, the
cycle cannot be
low-temperature reservoir in order
completed.
to complete the cycle, even under
idealized conditions. 43
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid A heat engine that violates the
must exchange heat with the Kelvin–Planck statement of the
environment as well as the furnace. second law.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to
friction or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines. 44
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
Basic components of a
refrigeration system and
typical operating conditions.
• The transfer of heat from a low-
temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,
are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the freezer compartment
where heat is absorbed by the refrigerant serves as
the evaporator, and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the kitchen
45
air serve as the condenser.
 Coefficient of Performance
The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed
in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

The objective of a refrigerator is to Can the value of COPR be

remove QL from the cooled space. greater than unity?
46
 The objective Heat
of a heat
pump is to Pumps
supply heat
QH into the
warmer
space. The work
supplied to a
heat pump is
used to extract
energy from the
cold outdoors
and carry it into
the warm
indoors.

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
What does COPHP=1
represent?
for fixed values of QL and QH 47
 • Most heat pumps in operation today have a
seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air
as the heat source in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably
when temperatures are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP
that use the ground as the heat source can be
used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install,
but they are also more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose
refrigerated space is a room or a building instead
of the food compartment.
When installed backward, • The COP of a refrigerator decreases with
an air conditioner decreasing refrigeration temperature.
functions as a heat pump. • Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate to a
lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of heat removed 48

from the
cooled space in Btu’s for 1 Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clasius Statement

It is impossible to construct a device that

operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
from a colder body to a warmer one. A refrigerator that
To date, no experiment has been conducted that violates the Clausius
contradicts the second law, and this should be statement of the second
taken as sufficient proof of its validity. law.
49
Equivalence of the Two Statements

Proof that the

violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement leads
to the violation
of the Clausius
statement.

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their

consequences, and either statement can be used as the expression of the
second law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also violates the
50
Clausius statement, and vice versa.
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

A perpetual-motion machine that

violates the second law of
A perpetual-motion machine that
thermodynamics (PMM2).
violates the first law (PMM1).
Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second
law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is51 known to have
worked. If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
• Why are we interested in reversible processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others.
• We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

Two familiar Reversible processes deliver the most52and consume

reversible processes. the least work.
 • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
Friction temperature difference, electric resistance,
renders a inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
process reactions.
irreversible.
• The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversibilities
(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is
irreversible, Irreversible
and (b) the compression
reverse and
process is expansion 53

impossible. processes.
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

A reversible process
involves no internal and Totally and internally reversible heat
54
external irreversibilities. transfer processes.
 THE CARNOT
CYCLE

Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises
55 from TL to TH)
P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. P-V diagram of the reversed
Carnot cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration 56cycle.
 THE CARNOT
PRINCIPLES

Proof of the first Carnot principle.

The Carnot principles.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating
57 between the
same two reservoirs are the same.
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE
A temperature scale that is
independent of the
properties of the
substances that are used
to measure temperature is
called a thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Such a temperature scale
offers great conveniences
in thermodynamic
calculations.
All reversible heat
engines operating
between the same two
reservoirs have the The arrangement of heat
same efficiency.
engines used to develop
the thermodynamic
temperature scale. 58
 This temperature scale is
called the Kelvin scale,
and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.

For reversible cycles, the A conceptual experimental setup

heat transfer ratio QH /QL to determine thermodynamic
can be replaced by the temperatures on the Kelvin
absolute temperature ratio scale by measuring heat
TH /TL. transfers QH and QL.
59
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low- No heat engine can have a higher
temperature efficiency than a reversible heat engine
reservoirs. operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.
Any heat Carnot heat
engine engine

60
The Quality of Energy

Can we use
C unit for
temperature
The higher the temperature
here?
of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.

The fraction of heat that How do you increase the

can be converted to work thermal efficiency of a Carnot
as a function of source heat engine? How about for
temperature. actual heat engines? 61
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
AND HEAT PUMP
Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

How do you increase the

No refrigerator can have a higher COP COP of a Carnot
than a reversible refrigerator operating refrigerator or heat pump?
between the same temperature limits. How about for actual ones?
62
Summary
 Introduction to the second law
 Thermal energy reservoirs
 Heat engines
 Thermal efficiency
 The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
 Refrigerators and heat pumps
 Coefficient of performance (COP)
 The 2nd law: Clasius statement
 Perpetual motion machines
 Reversible and irreversible processes
 Irreversibilities, Internally and externally reversible processes
 The Carnot cycle
 The reversed Carnot cycle
 The Carnot principles
 The thermodynamic temperature scale
 The Carnot heat engine
 The quality of energy
 The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump 63
Thank you
 UNIT - III
PROPERTIES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES
 Objectives
• Introduce the concept of a pure substance.
• Discuss the physics of phase-change processes.
• Illustrate the P-v, T-v, and P-T property diagrams and P-v-T
surfaces of pure substances.
• Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic
properties of pure substances from tables of property data.
• Describe the hypothetical substance “ideal gas” and the
ideal-gas equation of state.
• Apply the ideal-gas equation of state in the solution of typical
problems.
• Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the
deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior.
• Present some of the best-known equations of state.
66
PURE SUBSTANCE
 Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout.
 Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to be
a pure substance.

67
PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

The molecules
in a solid are
kept at their
positions by the
large springlike
inter-molecular
forces.
In a solid, the
attractive and
repulsive forces
between the
molecules tend
to maintain them
at relatively
constant
distances from
each other.
68
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

 Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it is not about to

vaporize.
 Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize.

At 1 atm and 20°C,

water exists in the
liquid phase
(compressed liquid).

At 1 atm pressure
and 100°C, water
exists as a liquid
that is ready to
vaporize
(saturated liquid). 69
 Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.
 Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium.
 Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor).

At 1 atm pressure, the As more heat is

As more heat is transferred, temperature remains transferred, the
part of the saturated liquid constant at 100°C until the temperature of the
vaporizes (saturated liquid– last drop of liquid is vaporized vapor starts to rise
vapor mixture). (saturated vapor).
70
(superheated vapor).
If the entire process between state 1 and 5 described in the figure is
reversed by cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the
same value, the water will go back to state 1, retracing the same path,
and in so doing, the amount of heat released will exactly match the
amount of heat added during the heating process.

T-v diagram for the

heating process of
water at constant
71
pressure.
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
 The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure;
therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
 Water boils at 100C at 1 atm pressure.
 Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.
 Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase at a given temperature.

The liquid–vapor
saturation curve
of a pure
substance
(numerical
values are for 72
water).
 Latent heat: The amount of energy
absorbed or released during a phase-
change process.
 Latent heat of fusion: The amount of
energy absorbed during melting. It is
equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.
 Latent heat of vaporization: The
amount of energy absorbed during
vaporization and it is equivalent to the
energy released during condensation.
 The magnitudes of the latent heats
depend on the temperature or pressure
at which the phase change occurs.
 At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of
fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the
latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5
kJ/kg.
 The atmospheric pressure, and thus the
boiling temperature of water, decreases
with elevation. 73
Some Consequences of Tsat
and Psat Dependence
The variation of
the temperature
of fruits and
vegetables with
pressure during
vacuum cooling
from 25°C to 0°C.

In 1775, ice was made

by evacuating the air 74

space in a water tank.

PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES

The variations of properties during phase-change processes are best studied

and understood with the help of property diagrams such as the T-v, P-v, and P-
T diagrams for pure substances.

T-v diagram of
constant-pressure
phase-change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures
(numerical
75
values
are for water).
 saturated liquid line
 saturated vapor line
 compressed liquid region
 superheated vapor region
 saturated liquid–vapor
mixture region (wet region)

At supercritical
Critical point: The point
pressures (P > Pcr),
at which the saturated
there is no distinct
liquid and saturated vapor
phase-change 76
states are identical.
(boiling) process.
77
Extending the For water,
Diagrams to Include Ttp = 0.01°C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
the Solid Phase

At triple-point pressure
and temperature, a
substance exists in three
phases in equilibrium.

78
Sublimation: Phase Diagram
Passing from the
solid phase directly
into the vapor phase.

At low pressures
(below the triple-point
value), solids
evaporate without
P-T diagram of pure substances.
melting first
(sublimation). 79
The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a
thermodynamic analysis it is more convenient to work with two-dimensional
diagrams, such as the P-v and T-v diagrams.

80
 PROPERTY TABLES
 For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations.
 Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
 Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot and are
calculated by using the relations between them and measurable properties.
 The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in a
convenient format.

Enthalpy—A Combination Property

The
combination
u + Pv is
frequently
encountered
in the analysis The product pressure 
81
of control volume has energy units.
volumes.
 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
 Table A–4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
 Table A–5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.

A partial list of Table A–4.

Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent

heat of vaporization): The amount of
energy needed to vaporize a unit mass
of saturated liquid at a given
temperature or pressure.

82
Examples:
Saturated liquid
and saturated
vapor states of
water on T-v and
P-v diagrams.

83
Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
Quality is between 0 and 1 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in
a mixture with saturated vapor.
Temperature and
pressure are dependent
properties for a mixture.

The relative
amounts of
liquid and
vapor phases
in a saturated
mixture are A two-phase system can be
specified by treated as a homogeneous
84

the quality x. mixture for convenience.

y v, u, or h.

85
Examples: Saturated liquid-vapor
mixture states on T-v and P-v diagrams.

86
In the region to the right of the Superheated Vapor
saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the critical Compared to saturated vapor,
point temperature, a substance superheated vapor is characterized by
exists as superheated vapor.
In this region, temperature and
pressure are independent
properties.

At a specified
P, superheated
vapor exists at
a higher h than
the saturated
vapor.

A partial
listing of 87

Table A–6.
The compressed liquid properties Compressed Liquid
depend on temperature much more Compressed liquid is characterized by
strongly than they do on pressure.
y  v, u, or h

A more accurate relation for h

A compressed liquid
may be approximated
as a saturated liquid at
the given temperature.
88
 Reference State and Reference Values
 The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from
measurable properties using the relations between properties.
 However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of properties at
specified states.
 Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of zero
for a convenient property or properties at that state.
 The reference state for water is 0.01°C and for R-134a is -40°C in tables.
 Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference state chosen.
 Sometimes different tables list different values for some properties at the same state as
a result of using a different reference state.
 However, In thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties, and the
reference state chosen is of no consequence in calculations.

89
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE
 Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,
and specific volume of a substance.
 The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.
Ideal gas equation
of state

R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Different substances
90
have different
gas constants.
Mass = Molar mass  Mole number Ideal gas equation at two
states for a fixed mass

Various expressions
of ideal gas equation

Real gases behave as an ideal gas at low

densities (i.e., low pressure, high temperature).

Properties per unit mole are 91

denoted with a bar on the top.

Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
 At pressures below 10 kPa, water
vapor can be treated as an ideal
gas, regardless of its temperature,
with negligible error (less than 0.1
percent).
 At higher pressures, however, the
ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors, particularly
in the vicinity of the critical point
and the saturated vapor line.
 In air-conditioning applications,
the water vapor in the air can be
treated as an ideal gas. Why?
 In steam power plant applications,
however, the pressures involved
are usually very high; therefore,
ideal-gas relations should not be
used.

Percentage of error ([|vtable - videal|/vtable] 100) involved in

assuming steam to be an ideal gas, and the region where steam 92

can be treated as an ideal gas with less than 1 percent error.

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR—A MEASURE
OF DEVIATION FROM IDEAL-GAS BEHAVIOR
Compressibility factor Z The farther away Z is from unity, the more the
A factor that accounts for gas deviates from ideal-gas behavior.
the deviation of real gases Gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities
from ideal-gas behavior at (i.e., low pressure, high temperature).
a given temperature and Question: What is the criteria for low pressure
pressure. and high temperature?
Answer: The pressure or temperature of a gas
is high or low relative to its critical temperature
or pressure.

93
 Reduced Reduced
pressure temperature
Pseudo-reduced Z can also be determined from
specific volume a knowledge of PR and vR.

94

Comparison of Z factors for various gases.

OTHER EQUATIONS OF
STATE
Several equations have been proposed to
represent the P-v-T behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region with no
limitations.

Van der Waals

Equation of State Critical isotherm
of a pure
substance has
an inflection
point at the
critical state.

This model includes two effects not considered

in the ideal-gas model: the intermolecular
attraction forces and the volume occupied by the
molecules themselves. The accuracy of the van 95

der Waals equation of state is often inadequate.

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

The constants are given in

Table 3–4 for various
substances. It is known to be
reasonably accurate for
densities up to about 0.8cr.

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

The constants are given in Table 3–4. This equation can handle substances
at densities up to about 2.5 cr.

Virial Equation of State

The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), and so on, that are

96
functions of temperature alone are called virial coefficients.
97
 Complex equations of
state represent the P-v-
T behavior of gases
more accurately over a
Percentage of error involved in various equations of wider range.
state for nitrogen
(% error = [(|vtable - vequation|)/vtable] 100). 98
Summary
 Pure substance
 Phases of a pure substance
 Phase-change processes of pure substances
 Compressed liquid, Saturated liquid, Saturated vapor, Superheated vapor
 Saturation temperature and Saturation pressure
 Property diagrams for phase change processes
 The T-v diagram, The P-v diagram, The P-T diagram, The P-v-T surface
 Property tables
 Enthalpy
 Saturated liquid, saturated vapor, Saturated liquid vapor mixture, Superheated
vapor, compressed liquid
 Reference state and reference values
 The ideal gas equation of state
 Is water vapor an ideal gas?
 Compressibility factor
 Other equations of state
 van der Waals Equation of State, Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State, Virial Equation of State
99
STEAM POWER
CYCLE
9-1 The Rankine Cycle

9-1-1. Vapor Carnot cycle

T
There are some problems:
(1) Compressor
(2) turbine

2 3

1 4

s
9-1-2. Rankine cycle
Trained as a civil engineer, William Rankine (1820-
1872)was appointed to the chairman of civil
engineering and mechanics at Glasgow in 1855. He
worked on heat, and attempted to derive Sadi Carnot's
law from his own hypothesis. He was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society in 1853. Among his most
important works are Manual of Applied Mechanics
(1858), Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime
Movers (1859) .
9-1-3. The efficiency of Rankine cycle

qabsorb= h2 - h1

qexhaust= h3 – h4

qabsorb  qexhaust

qabsorb
h2  h1  (h3  h4 )

h2  h1
h2  h1  h3  h4 )

h2  h1
Usually, The properties: p1, t1 and p2 are available for a power
plant,then:
h1:
From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1

h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”

h2’ , h2”

s2  s1  xs2 "(1  x)s2 '

So, x can be known

h2  xh2 "(1  x)h2 '

h4: From p1 , s1= s4 get h4
h3: From p2 , get h2’ , s2’ .
h3= h3’ s3= s3’
 9-2 The Influence of Steam Property
9-2-1. Exhaust Pressure

To decrease the exhaust pressure

can increase the efficiency of
Rankine cycle.
But the dryness fraction will
increase too. This can lead some
damage to steam turbine
9-2-2. Inlet temperature

To decrease the inlet temperature

can increase the efficiency of
Rankine cycle.
But this increase depends on boiler
material
9-2-3. Inlet pressure

To increase the inlet pressure can

increase the efficiency of Rankine
cycle greatly.
But this increase also depends on
boiler material
9-3 Reheat Cycle
9-3-1 Equipments of Reheat Cycle

Reheater
Steam turbine

boiler

Feed water pump condense

r
9-3-2 Efficiency

T-s diagram Efficiency

qin  (h1  h4 )  (hn  hm )

qexhaust  h2  h3

w  qin  qexhaust

w

qin
(h1  h4 )  (hn  hm )  (h2  h3 )

(hm  h1 )  (h1  hn )
The properties: p1, t1 , pm , tn (equals t1 usually), p2 are available for a reheat
power plant,then:
h1:
From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1

hm: From p2 , s2 =s1, get hm

hn: From pm , tn , get hn

h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”

h2’ , h2”

s2  sn  xs2 "(1  x)s2 '

So, x can be known
h2  xh2 "(1  x)h2 '
h3: From p2 , get h2’ , s2’ .
h3= h3’ s3= s3’

h4: From p1 , s1= s4 get h4

9-4 Regenerative Cycle
9-4-1 Ideal Regenerative Cycle
9-4-2 Regenerative Cycle
1

Steam turbine

a
boiler Stea
m 2

6
condense
5
r
3

Feed water pump drainage pump

Feed water heater
4
T

1 The feed water is heated by

steam bleeding out from
steam turbine. The average
1 temperature of heat
6 absorption process
increases then.

5
4
1
3 2

The flow of steam bleeding out from the turbine

 100%
The flow of steam entering the turbine
 1

Steam turbine

b
a
boiler
2

7
5 condense
6 r
3

Feed water pump drainage pump

Feed water heater
4
T

1
The more stages of
bleeding steam, the higher
1 efficiency the cycle has
7
1
6
2
4 5
1  1   2
3 2

s
9-4-2 The efficiency of regenerative Cycle

As to a two stages regenerative cycle,the properties: p1, t1 , pa , pb , p2 are

available. If neglect the pump work, the T-s diagram should be as following.

T 1
qin  h1  h6
1 a
1 qexhaust  (h2  h3 )(1  1   2 )
6
b
5 2 w  qin  qexhaust

4 1  1   2 qin  qexhaust

3 2 qin

s
 The enthalpy of each point

h1: From p1 , t1, get h1 , s1

T 1
ha: From pa , s1, get ha

1 a hb: From pb , s1, get hb

6 1
b
5 2 h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”
h2’ , h2”
4 1  1   2
3 2
s2  s1  xs2 "(1  x)s2 '
s So, x can be known
h2  xh2 "(1  x)h2 '
T 1
h3: From p2 , get h2’ , h3= h2’
1 a

6 1 h5: From pb , get hb’ , h5= hb’

b
5 2
h6: From pa , get ha’ , h6= ha’
4 1  1   2
3 2

s
1 and  2
As to the 1st stage heater

1 ha

h6 h5
1  1

According to the first law of thermodynamics

h6  h5 (1  1 )  1ha

h6  h5
1 
ha  h5
As to the 2nd stage heater

2 hb

h5 h4

1  1 1  1 -  2

According to the first law of thermodynamics

h5 (1  1 )  h4 (1  1   2 )   2 hb

(1  1 )( h5  h4 )
2 
hb  h4
9-5 Other Steam Power Cycle
9-5-1 Super-critical Cycle
9-5-2 The Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycle
9-5-2 Binary-vapor Cycle
THANK YOU..
128
VAPOR AND COMBINED
POWER CYCLES
 Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for
which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the
entire cycle.
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.
130
THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to
extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.

1-2 isothermal heat

addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
131
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the
condenser. The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle
for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities.

132

The simple ideal Rankine cycle.

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation

The efficiency of power plants in

the U.S. is often expressed in
terms of heat rate, which is the
amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s,
to generate 1 kWh of electricity.
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted
as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process.133
DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common
sources of irreversibilities. Isentropic efficiencies

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine 134
cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE
RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

To take advantage of the increased
efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers
of steam power plants usually operate well
below the atmospheric pressure. There is a
lower limit to this pressure depending on the
temperature of the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the
135
ideal Rankine cycle.
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
The effect of superheating the
steam to higher temperatures
on the ideal Rankine cycle.
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of superheating
the steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is an increase in
thermal efficiency since the average
temperature at which heat is added
increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations. Presently
the highest steam temperature allowed
at the turbine inlet is about 620°C.
136
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature, Today many modern steam power
the cycle shifts to the left and the plants operate at supercritical
moisture content of steam at the pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
turbine exit increases. This side have thermal efficiencies of about
effect can be corrected by reheating 40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
the steam. for nuclear plants.

The effect of increasing the boiler

A supercritical137Rankine cycle.
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

138
The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which The average temperature at
results from a single reheat. which heat is transferred during
The reheat temperatures are very close reheating increases as the
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature. number of reheat stages is
increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle 139

pressure.
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2 at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the heat-addition A feedwater heater is basically a heat
process in the boiler takes place at exchanger where heat is transferred from
relatively low temperatures. the steam to the feedwater either by
mixing the two fluid streams (open
feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).
140
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.

141
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the
extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two
streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.

142
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing
network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater
heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater
since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Open feedwater
A steam power plant with one open heaters are simple
and three closed feedwater heaters. and inexpensive
and have good
heat transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.

Most steam power

plants use a
combination of
open and closed
feedwater heaters.
143
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system

Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of vaporpower cycles reveals where the

largest irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
144
COGENERATION
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process
heat. Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to
7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by
burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.

Industries that use large amounts

of process heat also consume a
large amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce
power instead of letting it go to
waste.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity while meeting the
process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes
(cogeneration plant)
A simple process-heating plant.
Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy
(such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy
145 source.
Utilization
factor

• The utilization factor of the

ideal steam-turbine
cogeneration plant is
100%.
• Actual cogeneration plants
have utilization factors as
high as 80%.
• Some recent cogeneration
plants have even higher
utilization factors.
An ideal cogeneration plant. 146
 At times of high demand for process heat, all
the steam is routed to the process-heating units
and none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste
heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6
and is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all
the steam leaving the boiler passes through the
PRV (m5= m4). No power is produced in this
mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all
the steam passes through the turbine and the
condenser (m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration
plant operates as an ordinary steam power
plant.
A cogeneration plant with
adjustable loads.

147
 COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
148
Combined gas–steam power plant. 149
THANK YOU..
150
 UNIT - IV
Ideal and Real Gases
Equations of State
The Ideal Gas

 Ideal gas properties

 Volume of gas molecules is negligible compared with gas volume
 Forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules or walls of container are
zero
 No loss of internal energy due to collisions
Boyle’s Law
1 P
V
T1
T2
P
At fixed T
V

Gay Lussac’s Law

V T At fixed P
Avogadro’s Law
At the same P and T equal Volumes of gas
contain the same # of molecules
Na = 2. 73X1026 molecules/lb mole
Internet Lesson on Ideal Gas
Behavior
 Experimental
instructions

http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Piston/ Hi, I am
Boyle
 Problems with solutions

http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/GasLaw/WS-Ideal.html
Ideal Equation of State
Construction
Step 1
T2
T1
P1V1  P2V x

Step 2
P1 x
V V2

T1 T2
P2 Combining
P1V1 P2V2

Vx V2 T1 T2
V1
Boyle & Charles laws
Boyle Charles

a cool website with lots of info…

http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/GasLaw/KMT-Gas-Laws.html
Boyle & Charles laws

 1
V  T P
V  
 P T

P1V1 P2V2 PVM

 R
T1 T2 T
(VM  V / n)
R = gas constant, depends upon units used
See page 95 McCain book
Ideal Gas Mixture

 The pressure in a vessel containing an ideal gas mixture (n) or a

single gas component (nk) is

nRT
P http://home.a-city.de/walter.fendt/phe/gaslaw.htm

Vt
nk RT
Pk 
Vt
Partial Pressure

Pk nk
  yk
P p
k


P n
P is the partial pressure of component k,
k
T
1
T
1

and by definition

n ,n , nk
1 2
…, n
k
Nc

P
i 1
k P
Density of ideal gas

nRT m P
P  
Vt M wVt RT

Watch out the units!

Mixtures of Ideal Gases

 Dalton’s law of partial pressures

 Amagat’s law of partial volumes
 Specific gravity of a gas
Apparent Molecular Weight of
a Gas Mixture
 Determine the Mwa and density of a mixture of 30%C1,
40%C2, and 30%C3 at T=200oF and P=4000 psia
Behavior of Real Gases
Equations of State for Gases

Ideal gas PVM

1


 Real gas
RT
PVM
Z
RT
Z is the ratio of the “real molar volume”
over the “ideal molar volume”  PVM  RT  Z
 Z
of a substance measured at the same  RT 
 PVM id  1

pressure and temperature.
Compressibility Factor Charts

Z Tr
1

Pr
The Principle of
Corresponding States
“All fluids when compared at
the same reduced temperature
and reduced pressure, have
approximately the same
compressibility factor, and all
deviate from ideal gas behavior
to about the same degree”

The Principle of Corresponding states (POC)

originated with single component fluids.
Typical Reduced Parameters

 Material properties are usually expressed in terms of reduced

parameters such as:

 Reduced Temperature:

Tr  T / Tc 
Typical Reduced Parameters

 Reduced Pressure:


Pr  P / Pc 
Reduced Molar Volume:

V r  VM / VM c 
Reduced Parameters

 Usually Tr and Pr  Vr obtained as a function of Tr and Pr

 These are called two-parameter Corresponding States
models
 Three-parameter corresponding states models improve
predictions but third parameter is not Vr (not
independent variable)
Generalized Corresponding States Three-
Parameter

 This third parameter is called the acentric

factor.
 It takes into account the non-spherical
nature of molecules
 Peng Robinson and the Soave Redlich Kwong
equations of state (EOS) are examples of
three parameter corresponding states
models.
Compressibility Factor Charts

 Following the POC only one compressibility factor chart can be used
to determine volumetric properties of any pure fluid by using its
reduced properties. The shape of this chart is in general.
Corresponding States Correlations &
Models

The objective is then to find a model

(models) to predict the Z factor.
Ideal gas behavior is described from
the ideal gas Equation of State (EOS)
with a compressibility factor of 1.
Extension of Corresponding States to
Mixtures
 Z factor charts (all built from EOS) are also used for multicomponent
systems in this case the coordinates used are “pseudo-reduced
properties”
 For a mixture you can use the same charts as for a pure component.
Pseudoreduced Properties

 For mixtures the same type of charts apply

but using “pseudoreduced properties” which
are defined similarly as the ratio of pressure
(or temperature) with “pseudoreduced
critical pressure" (or temperature). These
pseudocritical properties are an average of
the critical properties of the components in
the mixture. Charts for mixtures can also be
used for single component fluids.
Compressibility
factor Z as a
function or
pseudoreduced
pressure
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
 Pseudoreduced Pressure

P
Ppr 
 Pseudoreduced Temperature Ppc

T
Tpr 
Tpc
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
 If only the specific gravity and Mw of of the gases is known then
charts are available to estimate these pseudocritical properties
(McCain figure 3-10 ).
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
 Naturally the degree of accuracy is reduced substantially. We well see
methods when compositional information is available, in this case:

Nc
Tpc    yiTci 
Nc
Ppc    yi Pci 
i 1 i 1
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
 Once Z is evaluated you can find the gas density as

g 
M
V
lbm / ft 3
 
Z-factor
chart for
low reduced
pressures
182
Objectives

• Develop the Maxwell relations, which form

the basis for many thermodynamic relations.
• Develop the Clapeyron equation and
determine the enthalpy of vaporization from
P, v, and T measurements alone.
• Develop general relations for cv, cp, du, dh,
and ds that are valid for all pure substances
and real gases.

183
THE MAXWELL RELATIONS
The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T, and s
of a simple compressible system to each other are called the Maxwell
relations. They are obtained from the four Gibbs equations by exploiting the
exactness of the differentials of thermodynamic properties.
Helmholtz function

Gibbs function

Maxwell relations are extremely

valuable in thermodynamics
because they provide a means of
determining the change in entropy,
which cannot be measured directly,
by simply measuring the changes in
properties P, v, and T.
These Maxwell relations are limited
to simple compressible
184 systems.
Maxwell relations
185
THE
CLAPEYRO
N
EQUATION

186
 Clapeyron
equation

The Clapeyron equation enables

us to determine the enthalpy of
vaporization hfg at a given
temperature by simply
measuring the slope of the
saturation curve on a P-T
diagram and the specific volume
of saturated liquid and saturated
vapor at the given temperature.

The slope of the saturation curve on a P-T

diagram is constant at a constant T or P.
General form of the Clapeyron
equation when the subscripts 1
and 2 indicate 187
the two phases.
188
The Clapeyron equation can be simplified for liquid–vapor and solid–
vapor phase changes by utilizing some approximations.

At low pressures

Treating vapor as
an ideal gas The Clapeyron–Clausius
equation can be used to
Substituting these equations into the Clapeyron determine the variation of
equation saturation pressure with
temperature.
It can also be used in the
solid–vapor region by
replacing hfg by hig (the
enthalpy of sublimation) of
the substance.
Integrating between two saturation states

Clapeyron–
Clausius equation
189
 GENERAL RELATIONS FOR du, dh, ds, cv,
AND cp
• The state postulate established that the state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
• Therefore, we should be able to calculate all the properties of a system such as
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy at any state once two independent,
intensive properties are available.
• The calculation of these properties from measurable ones depends on the
availability of simple and accurate relations between the two groups.
• In this section we develop general relations for changes in internal energy,
enthalpy, and entropy in terms of pressure, specific volume, temperature, and
specific heats alone.
• We also develop some general relations involving specific heats.
• The relations developed will enable us to determine the changes in these
properties.
• The property values at specified states can be determined only190 after the selection

of a reference state, the choice of which is quite arbitrary.

 Internal
Energy
Change
s

191
 Internal
Energy
Change
s

192
The enthalpy to be a function of T and P, that is, h=h(T, Enthalpy
P),
and take its total differential: Changes

193
194
Entropy Changes

195
Specific Heats cv and cp

196
197
Mayer
relation 198
 Mayer
relation
Conclusions from Mayer relation:
1. The right hand side of the equation is
always greater than or equal to zero.
Therefore, we conclude that

2. The difference between cp and cv

approaches zero as the absolute
temperature approaches zero.
3. The two specific heats are identical for
truly incompressible substances since v
constant. The difference between the two
specific heats is very small and is usually
disregarded for substances that are nearly
incompressible, such as liquids and solids.
The volume expansivity (also called the coefficient of
volumetric expansion) is a measure of the change in
volume with temperature at199constant pressure.
200
THE ∆h, ∆u, AND ∆s OF REAL GASES

• Gases at low pressures behave as ideal gases and obey the

relation Pv = RT. The properties of ideal gases are relatively
easy to evaluate since the properties u, h, cv, and cp depend on
temperature only.
• At high pressures, however, gases deviate considerably from
ideal-gas behavior, and it becomes necessary to account for
this deviation.
• In Chap. 3 we accounted for the deviation in properties P, v,
and T by either using more complex equations of state or
evaluating the compressibility factor Z from the compressibility
charts.
• Now we extend the analysis to evaluate the changes in the
enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy of nonideal (real) gases,
using the general relations for du, dh, and ds developed earlier.
201
Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases
The enthalpy of a real gas, in
general, depends on the pressure
as well as on the temperature.
Thus the enthalpy change of a real
gas during a process can be
evaluated from the general relation
for dh

For an isothermal process dT = 0,

and the first term vanishes. For a
constant-pressure process, dP = 0,
and the second term vanishes.
An alternative process path to evaluate
the enthalpy changes of real gases.

202
Using a superscript asterisk (*) to denote an ideal-gas state, we can express
the enthalpy change of a real gas during process 1-2 as

The difference between h and h* is called the

enthalpy departure, and it represents the
variation of the enthalpy of a gas with pressure at
a fixed temperature. The calculation of enthalpy
departure requires a knowledge of the P-v-T
behavior of the gas. In the absence of such data,
we can use the relation Pv = ZRT, where Z is the
compressibility factor. Substituting,

203
 Enthalpy
departure
factor
The values of Zh are presented in graphical form as a function of PR
(reduced pressure) and TR (reduced temperature) in the generalized
enthalpy departure chart.
Zh is used to determine the deviation of the enthalpy of a gas at a
given P and T from the enthalpy of an ideal gas at the same T.
For a real gas
during a
process 1-2
from ideal gas tables

Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases

Using the definition

204
Entropy Changes of Real Gases
General relation for ds

Using the approach in the figure

During isothermal process

An alternative process path to

evaluate the entropy changes of real
gases during process 1-2.
205
 Entropy
departure
factor
Entropy departure

The values of Zs are presented in graphical form as a function of PR

(reduced pressure) and TR (reduced temperature) in the generalized
entropy departure chart.
Zs is used to determine the deviation of the entropy of a gas at a
given P and T from the entropy of an ideal gas at the same P and T.

For a real gas

during a
process 1-2

from the ideal gas relations

206
EXAMPLE 12-11
Thermodynamics Analysis with Non-Ideal Gas Properties

Propane is compressed isothermally by a piston-cylinder

device from 95˚C and 1400 kPa to 5500 kPa. Using the
generalized charts, determine the work done and the heat
transfer per unit mass of propane.

ANS:
Wb,in = 105.1 kJ/kg
qout = 326.4 kJ/kg

207
THANK YOU..
208
209
 Objectives
• Develop rules for determining nonreacting gas
mixture properties from knowledge of mixture
composition and the properties of the individual
components.
• Define the quantities used to describe the
composition of a mixture, such as mass fraction,
mole fraction, and volume fraction.
• Predict the P-v-T behavior of gas mixtures based
on Dalton’s law of additive pressures and
Amagat’s law of additive volumes.
• Apply the rules for determining mixture properties
210

to ideal-gas mixtures and real-gas mixtures.

COMPOSITION OF A GAS MIXTURE:
MASS AND MOLE FRACTIONS
To determine the properties of a mixture, we need to know the composition of
the mixture as well as the properties of the individual components. There are
two ways to describe the composition of a mixture:
Molar analysis: specifying
the number of moles of
each component
Gravimetric analysis:
specifying the mass of each
The mass of a mixture is equal to the component
sum of the masses of its components.

Mass
fraction
The number of moles of a nonreacting
mixture is equal to the sum of the Mole 211
number of moles of its components. fraction
Apparent (or average) molar mass M The sum of the mass and
mole fractions of a mixture
is equal to 1.

Gas constant

The molar mass of a mixture

Mass and mole fractions of a

mixture are related by
The sum of the mole
fractions of a mixture
is equal to 1.
212
213
214
P-v-T BEHAVIOR OF GAS MIXTURES:
IDEAL AND REAL GASES
An ideal gas is defined as a gas whose molecules are spaced far
apart so that the behavior of a molecule is not influenced by the presence
of other molecules.

The real gases approximate this behavior closely when they are
at a low pressure or high temperature relative to their critical-point
values.

The P-v-T behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by the simple

relation Pv=RT, which is called the ideal-gas equation of state.

The P-v-T behavior of real gases is expressed by more complex

equations of state or by Pv=ZRT, where Z is the compressibility factor.
215
P-v-T BEHAVIOR OF GAS MIXTURES:
IDEAL AND REAL GASES
Dalton’s law of additive pressures for
a mixture of two ideal gases.
Amagat’s law of additive volumes
for a mixture of two ideal gases.
The prediction of the P-v-T
behavior of gas mixtures is usually
based on two models:
Dalton’s law of additive
pressures: The pressure of a gas
mixture is equal to the sum of the
pressures each gas would exert if it
existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume.
Amagat’s law of additive
volumes: The volume of a gas
mixture is equal to the sum of the
volumes each gas would occupy if it
existed alone 216 at the mixture
temperature and pressure.
 Pi component pressure Vi component volume
Pi /Pm pressure fraction Vi /Vm volume fraction

The volume a component would occupy if it existed alone

at the mixture T and P is called the component volume (for
ideal gases, it is equal to the partial volume yiVm). 217
 Ideal-Gas Mixtures
For ideal gases, Dalton’s and Amagat’s laws are identical and give identical
results.

Note that for an ideal-gas mixture,

the mole fraction, the pressure
fraction, and the volume fraction
of a component are identical.

This equation is only valid for ideal-gas mixtures as it is derived by

assuming ideal-gas behavior for the gas mixture and each of its components.

The quantity yiPm is called the partial pressure (identical to the

component pressure for ideal gases), and the quantity218yiVm is called the
partial volume (identical to the component volume for ideal gases).
 Real-Gas Mixtures
Compressibility factor

Zi is determined either at Tm and Vm

Dalton’s law) or at Tm and Pm (Amagat’s
law) for each individual gas.
Amagat’s law involves the use
of mixture pressure Pm, which accounts One way of predicting the P-v-T
for the influence of intermolecular behavior of a real-gas mixture is to
forces between the molecules of use compressibility factor.
different gases.
Dalton’s law disregards the influence of dissimilar molecules in a
mixture on each other. As a result, it tends to underpredict the pressure of a
gas mixture for a given Vm and Tm.

Dalton’s law is more appropriate for gas mixtures at low pressures.

219

Amagat’s law is more appropriate at high pressures.

 Real-Gas Mixtures
Kay’s rule

Zm is determined by using these

pseudocritical properties.

The result by Kay’s rule is

accurate to within about 10% over a wide
range of temperatures and pressures.
220
221
222
223
224
PROPERTIES OF GAS MIXTURES:
IDEAL AND REAL GASES
Extensive properties of a gas mixture

Changes in properties of a gas mixture The extensive

properties of a
mixture are
determined by
simply adding the
properties of the
components.
225
 Intensive properties of a gas mixture

The intensive
properties of
a mixture are
determined by
weighted
averaging.

Properties per unit mass involve mass fractions (mfi) and properties
per unit mole involve mole fractions (yi).
The relations are exact for ideal-gas mixtures, and approximate for
real-gas mixtures. 226
Ideal-Gas Mixtures
Gibbs–Dalton law: Under the ideal-gas
approximation, the properties of a gas are
not influenced by the presence of other
gases, and each gas component in the
mixture behaves as if it exists alone at
the mixture temperature Tm and mixture
volume Vm.
Also, the h, u, cv, and cp of an ideal gas
depend on temperature only and are
independent of the pressure or the
volume of the ideal-gas mixture.
Partial pressures (not
the mixture pressure)
are used in the
evaluation of entropy
changes of ideal-gas
mixtures.

227
228
229
230
THANK YOU..
231
 UNIT - V
PSYCHROMETRY
Psychrometrics
 It involves determination of thermodynamic properties of gas-
vapor mixtures.
 The most common applications are associated with the air-
water vapor system.
 Properties of dry air
 Composition of air
composition % by volume
Nitrogen 78.08400
Oxygen 20.94760
Argon 0.934000
Carbon dioxide 0.031400
Neon 0.001818
Helium 0.000524
Others (methane, sulfur 0.000658
dioxide, hydrogen, krypton และ
xenon)
Properties of dry air

 Molecular weight = 28.9645

 Gas constant for dry air = 287.055 m3Pa/kg.K
Ra T A
 Specific volume V’a =
Pa

 Specific heat (average) = 1.005 kJ/kg.K

 Enthalpy = Ha = 1.005 (Ta-To) kJ/kg
 Dry bulb temperature = temperature indicated
by unmodified sensor
Properties of water vapor

 Molecular weight = 18.01534

 Gas constant for dry air = 461.52 m3Pa/kg.K
RwTA
 Specific volume V’w =
Pw

 Specific heat (average) = 1.88 kJ/kg.K

 Enthalpy = Hw = 2501.4 + 1.88 (Ta-To) kJ/kg
Properties of air-vapor
mixtures
Gibbs-Dalton Law
pB = p a + pw
where pB = total pressure
pa = partial pressure of dry air
pw = partial pressure of water vapor
Dew-point temperature

 The water vapor in the air will be saturated when air is

at a temperature equal to the saturation temperature
corresponding to the partial pressure exerted by the
water vapor.
 This temperature is called dew-point temperature.
Humidity ratio/ moisture
content

(W)gas law)
PV = mRT (ideal

 PwV 
W
mw
  RwT  Pw Ra

ma  PaV  Pa Rw
P = Pw + Pa

 Ra T  R = gas constant
P = total pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature
W = humidity ratio
Pw
W  0.622
P  Pw Subscripts: w is water vapor,
a is dry air
Relative Humidity

 Φ = xw/xw,s = Pw/Pws = w/ws

 Function of T x = mole fraction
0.622  Ws P = pressure
 μ = degree of saturation
0.622  W
W = humidity ratio

 Easy to measure and useful in some contexts, but often

need to know temperature as well
Humid heat

 It is amount of heat (kJ) required to raise the

temperature of 1 kg dry air plus water vapor present by
1 K.
 Cs = 1.005 + 1.88W
Specific volume

 It is the volume (m3) of 1 kg dry air plus

water vapor in the air.

 1 
V’m = 0.082Ta  22.4  W / 18 
 29 
 Wet bulb temperature

pw =
Pwb 
 PB  Pwb Ta  Tw 
where pw = partial pressure  0.722
1555.of56water Tw
vapor
pB = total pressure = barometric pressure
pwb = saturation pressure of water vapor
at wet bulb temp.
Ta = dry bulb temp.
Tw = wet bulb temp.
Example

 Find dew-point temperature, humidity ratio, humid

volume, and relative humidity of air having a dry bulb
temperature of 40C and a wet bulb temperature of
30C.
Adiabatic saturation process

 Phenomenon of adiabatic saturation of air is applicable

to convective drying of food materials.
 Adiabatic condition
 Well insulated chamber: no heat gain and loss
 Air is allowed to contact a large surface area of water
 Part of sensible heat of entering air is transformed into
latent heat
Adiabatic saturation process

 Process of evaporation water into the air results in

saturation by converting part of sensible heat of the
entering air into latent heat
Psychrometric
chart
Psychrometric Chart

 Need two quantities for a state point

 Can get all other quantities from a state point
 Can do all calculations without a chart
 Often require iteration
 Many “digital” psychrometric charts available
 Can make your own
Temperature

 Absolute Temperature
 Dry-bulb temperature
 Wet-bulb temperature
 Dew-point temperature
Psychrometric Charts

1. Make sure chart is appropriate for your environment

2. Figure out what two quantities you know
3. Understand their slopes on the chart
4. Find the intersection
 Watch for saturation
Psychrometric
processes
Sensible heating

Q  m c p t
Example
Dehumidification by Cooling
Example
Adiabatic mixing

 
m h  Q 
  m h
 Governing equation in out
Psychrometric
charts
THANK YOU..
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