Best Friend Forever

Were
Electricity and Magnetism unified by Maxwell

Are well understood

because of the


discoveries by
Two types of
Franklin on charges
Law of conversation
Formulated the of charges
electrostatic force
Coulomb on between charges
Magnetic effect of
Oersted on current

on how to Magnetic field

Ampere produced by current
compute the
Magnetic field at a
Biot and On how to
point in space due to
Savart compute the an electric current

Electromagnetic
Faraday on
induction
 Lesson 9.1 Electrical charges
Since 600 BCE, humans have been
aware of the attracting ability of some
natural substances materials. Thales of
Miletus investigated the ability of amber
to attract nearby objects when rubbed
with a piece of cloth.in 1600, William
Gilbert found that many others
materials, when rubbed against another
material, exhibit the same ability of
amber. He coined the term electricity
from the word elektron (Greek word for
amber) to associate to this observed Amber
property
 Lodestone, now known as magnetic
or magnetized iron core, is another
substance with a somewhat similar
property. It can attract iron even
without rubbing it with another
substance or material. This ability to
attract iron is called magnetism, and the
materials having this property are
called magnets.

Electricity magnetism were initially

thought to be separate phenomena.
However, succeeding discoveries
Lodestone or
showed that they are very much
Magnetite
related; one cannot exist without the
other.
The Nature of Charges
Scientists explain the nature of electricity and
magnetism and other related phenomena using the concept of

electric charges, Today, the study of electric charges is divided
into two subfields: electrostatic and electrodynamics.
Electrostatic studies the phenomena associated with charged
particles at rest; electrodynamics studies those involving moving
charges.
In 1752, Benjamin Franklin conducted experiments
using glass rods rubbed with silk, and rubber rods rubbed
with fur. He observed that the two rods repelled each other.
Positive and negative charges are two types of electric charges.
In line with this, Franklin also formulated the law of
conservation of charges, which states that for an isolated system,
the sum of the charges before and after an interaction must be
constant.
Electric Charges

 Coulomb’s Law
Consider two stationary charged
particles separated by a distance (d) as
shown in figure 9-2. These charged
particles are so small that they can be
considered as “point charges” with
magnitudes q1 and q2. If q1 and q2 have
unlike signs (i.e., a positive and a negative
charge), they would exert an attractive
force to each other. The force exerted by q2
on q1 (F21) is equal to the force exerted by
q1 on q2 (F12). If q1 and q2 have like
signs(i.e., both positive or both negative
charges), they would repel each other. In
this case, F12 is equal in magnitude, but Coulomb’s Law
opposite in direction to F21; that is, F12=-
F21. The attractive or repulsive force
experienced by each point charge is
directed along the line between them.
 Electric Field
Surrounding a charge is a region of space where an
electric field is said to exist. When another charge is placed in
this space, the charge would experience an electric force that

would be experienced by a unit positive test charge. In
symbols,
𝐹
E=
𝑞0

Where E is the field , F is the force and 𝑞0 is the test

charge. The SI unit of electric field is N/C.

The electric field can be visualized by using lines of force.

By convention, the lines of force radiate outward from a
positive charge, and inward toward a negative charge. Like
electrostatic force, electric field is a vector quantity.
 Electric Field


Isolated positive Isolated negative Two unlike charges Two like charges
charge charge near each other near each other
 Electric Current

Electric current (I) is defined as the quantity of charge

passing through a given point per unit time. In symbols,

𝑄
I=
𝑡
Its SI unit is the ampere, represented by a capital letter A.
Thus, a current of one ampere constitutes a flow of one
coulomb of charge in one second.

IA=IC/s
Electric Current

 Lesson 9.2 Magnetism
In 1269, French scholar Pierre
Pelerin de Maricourt discovered
that a magnetic has two poles, the
north pole (N) and the south pole
(S), and that magnetism is
concentrated at these poles, The
combination of north pole and
south pole is called a dipole.

Poles always come in pairs.

While isolated positive and
negative electric charges exist,
there is no experimental evidence
that magnetic monopoles exist.
 The Law of Magnetic Poles

The Law of magnetic poles states that like poles and unlike

poles attract. Coulomb proposed that the force of attraction
(or repulsion) between poles is similar to that between
electric charges. The force between the magnetic poles is
expressed as

𝑚1 𝑚2
F𝑘𝑚 =
𝑑2

Where 𝑘𝑚 is a proportionality constant equal to 1X10ˉ

N/m², 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are strengths of poles in ampere-meters, d
is distance between poles in meters, and F is force in
newtons.
Magnetic Poles

 Magnetic Water
Hard water contains great amount of salt. When hard
water is used for irrigation, salt accumulates on the soil
surface, preventing the plants from absorbing soil nutrients.
To “soften” this water and reduce its effects, magnetic water
treatment is employed. This process involves exposing the
hard water to a strong magnetic field to improve the
alignment and thus the dissolution of salt particles in water.

This produces a “softened” water the plants can easily

absorb. The results of the study indicated that “the
stimulatory impact of the magnetic water may be ascribed to
the increase of plant growth (plant height, leaf area, leaves,
stems, roots fresh, and dry weights) and yield production,
which increase absorption and assimilation of nutrients.”
Magnetic Water

 Magnetic Field

Surrounding a magnet is a magnetic field. A magnetic

field exists in a region of a space where magnetic is capable

of exerting a force on another magnetic material. This is
analogous to the electric field around an electric charge.

In the 1830s, Michael Faraday introduced the area of

the magnetic field as made up of lines of force. Magnetic
field lines point from the north pole of the south pole. The
different magnetic field patterns for different magnet
configurations are shown in figure 9-5. Unlike electric field
lines, magnetic field lines do not have ends point: they form
closed loops.
Magnetic Field

 Poverty did not prevent Michael Faraday
from realizing his dream. After receiving his
basic education at an early age, Faraday started
working as a delivery boy for a bookshop, and
later, as an apprentice bookbinder. Eager to know

and learn about the world, he read the books he
had bound during his free time. His effort paid
off. Faraday became a leading scientist not only
in physics, but also in chemistry. Through
experimentation, he discovered gas liquefaction
and cooling, laws of electrolysis, and the
substance benzene. In physics, he will always be
remembered for electromagnetic induction,
Faraday’s cage, diamagnetism, and the electric Michael Faraday
motor. The farad, the unit of capacitance, is
named after him.
Faraday must have been given a high regard
by Albert Einstein. His picture, alongside
Newton’s and Maxwell’s, were posted on
Einstein’s study.
Magnetic Flux

The number of magnetic field lines per unit area is


referred to as magnetic flux density and is represented by
letter B. Its SI unit is the tesla (T), named after Nikola Tesla.
A smaller unit is the gauss (G).

Magnetic Flux () is the number of lines of force

passing through an area perpendicular to it. It is the
product of the component of the magnetic flux density that
is perpendicular to the area through which magnetic lines
of force pass.
Magnetic Flux

 Lesson 9.3 Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is

the branch of physics that
studies the relationship
between electricity and
magnetism. It is based on
the fact that an electric
current produces a
magnetic field, and a
changing magnetic field
produces an electric
current.
 Magnetism from Electricity

While doing a demonstration in physics

in 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian


Oersted Discovered that a moving charge or a
current carrying wire produces a magnetic
field around it in addition to its electric field.

The direction of the magnetic field in a

straight wire can be determined by following
the “right-hand rule” depicted in figure 9-7
(a). To do this, grasp the wire with the right
hand in such away that the thumb points to
the direction of the conventional current (I).
a current-carrying
The fingers curl in the direction of the wire
magnetic field (B). When a current passes
through a straight wire, the magnetic lines of
force from concentric circles with their centers
at the axis of the wire and their planes
perpendicular to the wire.
 Shortly after Oersted announced his
discovery that a current-carrying wire
produces a magnetic field, French
physicist Andre-Marie Ampere 
conducted experiments and concluded
that electric current passing through a
coil or a solenoid produces a magnetic
field. A solenoid is simply a long coil of
several turns to wire. In this case, if the
fingers of the right hand are curled in
the direction of the current then, the
thumb points to the N pole of the field. A solenoid

Figure 9-7 (b) shows the magnetic field

produce by a current in passing through
a solenoid.
 Ampere later formulated a law for computing the magnetic
field for different conductor configurations. Ampere also designed
prototype galvanometer to measure current based on the deflection
of a magnetic needle. Not to be outdone, Jean-Baptiste Biot and
Felix Savart formulated the Biot-Savart law for determining the

magnetic field at a point in space due to an electric current.

In addition to the discovery at a moving charge creates a

magnetic field, it was also found that the magnetic field exert a
force on a moving charge on a current-carrying conductor. The
magnitude of this force for a moving charge is given by the
formula.

A moving charge A current-carrying conductor

A Motor

One of the application of this affect of magnetic


field is the mechanism behind a motor. A motor is a
device that convers electrical energy to mechanical
energy. It consists of a coil placed in a magnetic field. It
works on the principle that a magnetic field exerts a
force on a moving charge. This force rotates the
attached shaft and the rotation does the work.

Ampere showed the two parallel current-carrying

wires attract each other magnetically if the currents are
in the same direction; they repel each other if the
currents are in opposite direction.
 Motor


A DC motor The basic part of a motor

 Electricity from Magnetism
The current and the electromotive force produced are called
induced current and induce EMF, respectively.


Two major law govern electromagnetic induction: Faraday’s law
and Lenz’s law. Faraday’s law states that an induced current (and
hence induced EMF) is produced whenever there is a change in
magnetic flux in a circuit. Lenz’s law states that the induced current
flows in a direction so as to oppose the change causing it.

These two laws are demonstrated in the following experiment

performed by faraday, to whom the discovery of electromagnetic
induction is credited.
 Unifying the Electricity and Magnetism
James Clerk Maxwell realized that the results of independent
studies about electricity and magnetism revealed that they are not
distinct phenomena. Electricity and magnetism are but
manifestations of a single force electromagnetic force. Maxwell

devised a set of four mathematical equation that unified electric and
magnetic phenomena into what is now known as electromagnetic
theory. His equation, which from the basis of electromagnetism, are
in differential from but in essence may be a stated as follows:

•Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.

• Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
•A changing electric field produces a magnetic field.
•A changing magnetic field produces an electric field.

Electromagnetic waves
produced by changing
electric and magnetic fields
 Discovery of Radio Waves

Heinrich Hertz was credited for having discovered radio

waves in the late 1880s. Hertz’s apparatus consisted of two
metals balls connected to two brass plates that served as a

transmitter. A coil of wire with a small sparks gap acted as a
receiver. As sparks jumped across the two brass balls in the
transmitter, sparks were also observed in the gap in the
receiver. Hertz reasoned our that the sparks in the transmitter
setup changing magnetic and electric fields that propagated as
waves to the receiver.

Brass plate

Brass ball
Hertz’s apparatus for
producing and detecting
radio waves