Statistics &

Evidence-Based Practice
Objectives

 Identify the purposes of statistical analyses.

 Describe the process of data analysis.
 Describe probability theory and decision theory
that guide statistical data analysis.
 Describe the process of inferring from a sample
to a population.
 Discuss the distribution of the normal curve.
Objectives

 Identify descriptive analyses.

 Describe the results obtained from inferential statistical
analyses.
 Describe the five types of results obtained from quasi-
experimental and experimental study designs.
 Compare and contrast statistical significance and
clinical importance of results.
 Critically appraise statistical results, findings, limitations,
conclusions, and generalization of findings.
A Statistical
Primer
 What is Statistics?

 Main purpose of statistics, among others, is to develop and apply methodology for
extracting useful knowledge from data. (Fisher 1990)

 Major activities in statistics involve:

• exploration and visualization of sample data
• summary description of sample data
• hypothesis testing and statistical inference
• design of experiments and surveys to test hypotheses
• stochastic modeling of uncertainty (e.g. flipped coin)
• forecasting based on suitable models
• development of new statistical theory and methods

Slide 5
Example: A recent study examined the math and verbal SAT scores of
high school seniors across the country. Which of the following
statements are descriptive in nature and which are inferential.
• The mean math SAT score was 492.
• The mean verbal SAT score was 475.
• Students in the Northeast scored higher in math but lower in verbal.
• 80% of all students taking the exam were headed for college.
• 32% of the students scored above 610 on the verbal SAT.
• The math SAT scores are higher than they were 10 years ago.
 Statistical data analysis

 Starts with data

• Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio

 Descriptive statistics
• Exploring, visualizing, and summarizing data without fitting the
data to any models

 Inferential statistics
• Identification of a suitable model
• Testing either predictions or hypotheses of the model

Slide 7
 Data and Data Sets

 Data are the facts and figures collected, summarized,

analyzed, and interpreted.

 The data collected in a particular study are referred

to as the data set.

Slide 8
Introduction to Basic Terms
Population: A collection, or set, of individuals or objects or
events whose properties are to be analyzed.
Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.

Sample: A subset of the population.

Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a population or sample.

Data (singular): The value of the variable associated with one element of a
population or sample. This value may be a number, a word, or a symbol.

Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable from each of the elements
belonging to the sample.

Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set of data.

Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data of an entire population.

Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample data.

Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age of faculty. Identify the
basic terms in this situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might select 10 faculty members and
determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages forming the sample and determining
the actual age of each faculty member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty at the college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical, Variable: A variable that
categorizes or describes an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and averaging, are not
meaningful for data resulting from a qualitative variable.
Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable that quantifies an
element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and averaging, are
meaningful for data resulting from a quantitative variable.
Example: Identify each of the following examples as attribute (qualitative) or
numerical (quantitative) variables.

1. The residence hall for each student in a statistics class. (Attribute)

2. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10 customers at the local Unimart.
(Numerical)
3. The amount of radon in the basement of each of 25 homes in a new
development. (Numerical)
4. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20 students. (Attribute)
5. The length of time to complete a mathematics homework assignment.
(Numerical)
6. The state in which each truck is registered when stopped and inspected at a
weigh station. (Attribute)
Qualitative and quantitative variables may be further subdivided:

Nominal
Qualitative
Ordinal
Variable
Discrete
Quantitative
Continuous
Nominal Variable: A qualitative variable that categorizes (or describes, or names)
an element of a population.

Ordinal Variable: A qualitative variable that incorporates an ordered position, or

ranking.

Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume a countable number of

values. Intuitively, a discrete variable can assume values corresponding to isolated
points along a line interval. That is, there is a gap between any two values.

Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume an uncountable

number of values. Intuitively, a continuous variable can assume any value along a
line interval, including every possible value between any two values.
Note:
1. In many cases, a discrete and continuous variable may be distinguished by
determining whether the variables are related to a count or a measurement.
2. Discrete variables are usually associated with counting. If the variable cannot
be further subdivided, it is a clue that you are probably dealing with a discrete
variable.
3. Continuous variables are usually associated with measurements. The values
of discrete variables are only limited by your ability to measure them.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of qualitative or numerical
variables:
1. The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00 pm on any
given day.
2. The make of automobile driven by each faculty member.
3. Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is defective.
4. The weight of a lead pencil.
5. The length of time billed for a long distance telephone call.
6. The brand of cereal children eat for breakfast.
7. The type of book taken out of the library by an adult.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of (1) nominal, (2) ordinal,
(3) discrete, or (4) continuous variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever begins to work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
3. The number of colors used in a statistics textbook.
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.
 Data, Data Sets,
Elements, Variables, and Observations
Variables
Element
Names Stock Annual Earn/
Company Exchange Sales($M) Share($)

Dataram AMEX 73.10 0.86

EnergySouth OTC 74.00 1.67
Keystone NYSE 365.70 0.86
LandCare NYSE 111.40 0.33
Psychemedics AMEX 17.60 0.13

Data Set

Slide 19
 Scales of Measurement

Scales of measurement include:

Nominal Interval
Ordinal Ratio

The scale determines the amount of information

contained in the data.

The scale indicates the data summarization and

statistical analyses that are most appropriate.

Slide 20
 Scales of Measurement

 Nominal
Data are labels or names used to identify an
attribute of the element.

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.

Slide 21
 Scales of Measurement

 Nominal

Example:
Students of a university are classified by the
school in which they are enrolled using a
nonnumeric label such as Business, Humanities,
Education, and so on.
Alternatively, a numeric code could be used for
the school variable (e.g. 1 denotes Business,
2 denotes Humanities, 3 denotes Education, and
so on).

Slide 22
 Scales of Measurement

 Ordinal
The data have the properties of nominal data and
the order or rank of the data is meaningful.

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.

Slide 23
 Scales of Measurement

 Ordinal
Example:
Students of a university are classified by their
class standing using a nonnumeric label such as
Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior.
Alternatively, a numeric code could be used for
the class standing variable (e.g. 1 denotes
Freshman, 2 denotes Sophomore, and so on).

Slide 24
 Scales of Measurement

 Interval
The data have the properties of ordinal data, and
the interval between observations is expressed in
terms of a fixed unit of measure.

Interval data are always numeric.

Slide 25
 Scales of Measurement

 Interval
Example:
Melissa has an SAT score of 1205, while Kevin
has an SAT score of 1090. Melissa scored 115
points more than Kevin.

Slide 26
 Scales of Measurement

 Ratio
The data have all the properties of interval data
and the ratio of two values is meaningful.

Variables such as distance, height, weight, and time

use the ratio scale.

This scale must contain a zero value that indicates

that nothing exists for the variable at the zero point.

Slide 27
 Scales of Measurement

 Ratio
Example:
Melissa’s college record shows 36 credit hours
earned, while Kevin’s record shows 72 credit
hours earned. Kevin has twice as many credit
hours earned as Melissa.

Slide 28
 In-class Exercise

 Nominal data:
 Ordinal data
 Interval and Ratio data:

Slide 29
 Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Data can be further classified as being qualitative

or quantitative.

The statistical analysis that is appropriate depends

on whether the data for the variable are qualitative
or quantitative.

In general, there are more alternatives for statistical

analysis when the data are quantitative.

Slide 30
 Qualitative Data

Labels or names used to identify an attribute of each

element

Often referred to as categorical data

Use either the nominal or ordinal scale of

measurement

Can be either numeric or nonnumeric

Appropriate statistical analyses are rather limited

Slide 31
 Quantitative Data

Quantitative data indicate how many or how much:

discrete, if measuring how many

continuous, if measuring how much

Quantitative data are always numeric.

Ordinary arithmetic operations are meaningful for

quantitative data.

Slide 32
 Scales of Measurement

Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical Nonnumerical Numerical

Nominal Ordinal Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Slide 33
 Cross-Sectional Data

Cross-sectional data are collected at the same or

approximately the same point in time.

Example: data detailing the number of building

permits issued in June 2003 in each of the counties
of Ohio

Slide 34
 Time Series Data

Time series data are collected over several time

periods.

Example: data detailing the number of building

permits issued in Lucas County, Ohio in each of
the last 36 months

Slide 35
 Data Sources

 Existing Sources (often called secondary data)

Within a firm – almost any department

Business database services – Dow Jones & Co.
Government agencies - U.S. Department of Labor
Industry associations – Travel Industry Association
of America
Special-interest organizations – Graduate Management
Admission Council
Internet – more and more firms

Slide 36
 Data Sources

 Statistical Studies (often called primary data)

In experimental studies the variables of interest

are first identified. Then one or more factors are
controlled so that data can be obtained about how
the factors influence the variables.

In observational (nonexperimental) studies no

attempt is made to control or influence the
variables of interest.
a survey is a
good example

Slide 37
 Data Acquisition Considerations

Time Requirement
• Searching for information can be time consuming.
• Information may no longer be useful by the time it
is available.
Cost of Acquisition
• Organizations often charge for information even
when it is not their primary business activity.
Data Errors
• Using any data that happens to be available or
that were acquired with little care can lead to poor
and misleading information.

Slide 38
Statistics in Nursing Practice

 Reading or critiquing published research

 Examining outcomes of nursing practice by
analyzing data collected in a clinical site
 Developing administrative reports with support data
 Analyzing research done by nursing staff and other
health professionals at a clinical site
 Demonstrating a problem or need and conducting
a study
 Applications in Economics
Statistics: a methodology to use data to
learn the “truth.” i.e., Uncover the true
data mechanism

Probability: Branch of mathematics that

models of the truth

In economics, we estimate and test economic models

and their predictions

Use empirical models for prediction,

forecasting, and policy analysis.
Critically Appraising Statistics

 Identify statistical procedures used

 Determine whether statistics used were

appropriate or not

 Evaluate researchers interpretation of statistics

Stages in Data Analysis

1. Prepare data for analysis.

2. Describe the sample.
3. Test reliability of measurement methods.
4. Conduct exploratory analysis.
5. Conduct confirmatory analysis guided by
hypotheses, questions, or objectives.
6. Conduct posthoc analyses.
Major Statistics in Nursing Studies

Descriptive Inferential
 Descriptive Statistics

 Descriptive statistics are the tabular, graphical, and numerical methods

used to summarize data.

 Examples
• Frequency table
• Histogram
• Mean
• Variance

Slide 44
 Statistical Inference

Population - the set of all elements of interest in a

particular study
Sample - a subset of the population

Statistical inference - the process of using data obtained

from a sample to make estimates
and test hypotheses about the
characteristics of a population
Census - collecting data for a population

Sample survey - collecting data for a sample

Slide 45
 Process of Statistical Inference: example

1. Population 2. A sample of 25
consists of heights of students are randomly
all GSU students. selected and measured.

4. The sample average 3. The sample data

provide a sample
is used to estimate the average height
population average. of 5’ 5’’.

Slide 46
Descriptive Statistics

 Describe and summarize the sample and

variables
 Also referred to as summary statistics
Inferential Statistics

 Infer or address the objectives, questions, and

hypotheses
Descriptive Statistics

 If a research study collects numerical data,

data analysis begins with descriptive statistics
 Not limited to quantitative research!
 May be the only statistical analysis conducted in a
descriptive study
Types of Descriptive Statistics

 Frequency distributions

 Measures of central tendency

 Measures of dispersion
1.3: Measure and Variability
• No matter what the response variable: there will always be
variability in the data.
• One of the primary objectives of statistics: measuring and
characterizing variability.
• Controlling (or reducing) variability in a manufacturing
process: statistical process control.
Example: A supplier fills cans of soda marked 12 ounces. How much soda does
each can really contain?

• It is very unlikely any one can contains exactly 12 ounces of soda.

• There is variability in any process.
• Some cans contain a little more than 12 ounces, and some cans contain a little
less.
• On the average, there are 12 ounces in each can.
• The supplier hopes there is little variability in the process, that most cans contain
close to 12 ounces of soda.
1.4: Data Collection
• First problem a statistician faces: how to obtain the data.
• It is important to obtain good, or representative, data.
• Inferences are made based on statistics obtained from the
data.
• Inferences can only be as good as the data.
Biased Sampling Method: A sampling method that produces data which
systematically differs from the sampled population. An unbiased sampling
method is one that is not biased.

Sampling methods that often result in biased samples:

1. Convenience sample: sample selected from elements of a
population that are easily accessible.
2. Volunteer sample: sample collected from those elements
of the population which chose to contribute the needed
information on their own initiative.
Process of data collection:

1. Define the objectives of the survey or experiment.

Example: Estimate the average life of an electronic component.
2. Define the variable and population of interest.
Example: Length of time for anesthesia to wear off after surgery.
3. Defining the data-collection and data-measuring schemes. This includes
sampling procedures, sample size, and the data-measuring device (questionnaire,
scale, ruler, etc.).
4. Determine the appropriate descriptive or inferential data-analysis techniques.
Methods used to collect data:

Experiment: The investigator controls or modifies the environment and observes

the effect on the variable under study.

Survey: Data are obtained by sampling some of the population of interest. The
investigator does not modify the environment.

Census: A 100% survey. Every element of the population is listed. Seldom used:
difficult and time-consuming to compile, and expensive.
Sampling Frame: A list of the elements belonging to the population from which
the sample will be drawn.

Note: It is important that the sampling frame be representative of the population.

Sample Design: The process of selecting sample elements from the sampling
frame.

Note: There are many different types of sample designs. Usually they all fit into
two categories: judgment samples and probability samples.
Judgment Samples: Samples that are selected on the basis of being “typical.”

Items are selected that are representative of the population. The validity of the
results from a judgment sample reflects the soundness of the collector’s judgment.

Probability Samples: Samples in which the elements to be selected are drawn on

the basis of probability. Each element in a population has a certain probability of
being selected as part of the sample.
Random Samples: A sample selected in such a way that every element in the
population has a equal probability of being chosen. Equivalently, all samples of
size n have an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are obtained either
by sampling with replacement from a finite population or by sampling without
replacement from an infinite population.

Note:
1. Inherent in the concept of randomness: the next result (or occurrence) is not
predictable.
2. Proper procedure for selecting a random sample: use a random number generator or
a table of random numbers.
Example: An employer is interested in the time it takes each employee to commute
to work each morning. A random sample of 35 employees will be selected and
their commuting time will be recorded.

There are 2712 employees.

Each employee is numbered: 0001, 0002, 0003, etc. up to 2712.
Using four-digit random numbers, a sample is identified: 1315, 0987, 1125, etc.
Systematic Sample: A sample in which every kth item of the sampling frame is
selected, starting from the first element which is randomly selected from the first k
elements.

Note: The systematic technique is easy to execute. However, it has some inherent
dangers when the sampling frame is repetitive or cyclical in nature. In these
situations the results may not approximate a simple random sample.

Stratified Random Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying the sampling frame

and then selecting a fixed number of items from each of the strata by means of a
simple random sampling technique.
Proportional Sample (or Quota Sample): A sample obtained by stratifying the
sampling frame and then selecting a number of items in proportion to the size of
the strata (or by quota) from each strata by means of a simple random sampling
technique.

Cluster Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying the sampling frame and then
selecting some or all of the items from some of, but not all, the strata.
1.5: Comparison of Probability and Statistics
Probability: Properties of the population are assumed known.
Answer questions about the sample based on these properties.

Statistics: Use information in the sample to draw a conclusion

about the population.
Example: A jar of M&M’s contains 100 candy pieces, 15 are red. A handful of 10
is selected.

Probability question: What is the probability that 3 of the 10 selected are red?

Example: A handful of 10 M&M’s is selected from a jar containing 1000 candy

pieces. Three M&M’s in the handful are red.

Statistics question: What is the proportion of red M&M’s in the entire jar?
1.6: Statistics and the Technology
• The electronic technology has had a tremendous effect on
the field of statistics.
• Many statistical techniques are repetitive in nature:
computers and calculators are good at this.
• Lots of statistical software packages: MINITAB, SYSTAT,
STATA, SAS, Statgraphics, SPSS, and calculators.
Remember: Responsible use of statistical methodology is very
important. The burden is on the user to ensure that the appropriate
methods are correctly applied and that accurate conclusions are drawn
and communicated to others.

Note: The textbook illustrates statistical procedures using MINITAB,

EXCEL 97, and the TI-83.
Two-Tailedness
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

 Data in raw form:

 1: ☺
 2: ☺☺☺☺☺☺☺
 3: ☺☺
 4: ☺☺☺☺
 5: ☺
Grouped Frequency Distribution

 Data are grouped into categories:

 Ages 15 to 20: 12
 Ages 20 to 25: 14
 Ages 25 to 30: 19….
Example of a Percentage Distribution

 Housing: 41.7%
 Textbooks: 8.3%
 Clothing: 16.7%
 Food: 8.3%
 Additional Supplies: 25%
How Frequency Distributions are
Presented in Research Articles
Measures of Central Tendency

Mean

Median

Mode
Normal Curve
Normal Curve

 A theoretical frequency distribution of all

possible values in a population

 Levels of significance and probability are based

on the logic of the normal curve
Mean

 Is the sum of values divided by the number of

values being summed
Median

 Is the value in exact center of ungrouped

frequency distribution
 Is obtained by rank ordering the values
Mode

 Is the numerical value or score that occurs with

greatest frequency
 Is expressed graphically
Bimodal Distribution
Measures of Dispersion

Range

Variance

Standard deviation

Standardized scores

Scatterplots
Range

 Is obtained by subtracting lowest score from

highest score
Difference Scores

 Are obtained by subtracting the mean from

each score

 Sometimes referred to as a deviation score

because it indicates the extent to which a
score deviates from the mean
Standard Deviation

 Is the square root of the variance

 Just as the mean is the “average” value, the
standard deviation is the “average” difference
score
Standardized Scores

 Raw scores that cannot be compared and are

transformed into standardized scores

 Common standardized score is a Z-score

 Provides a way to compare scores in a similar

process
Scatterplots
Probability
Theory
Probability Theory

 Used to explain:
 Extent of a relationship
 Probability of an event occurring
 Probability that an event can be accurately
predicted
Probability

 If probability is 0.23, then p = 0.23

 There is a 23% probability that a particular event

will occur
Inferences

 A conclusion or judgment based on evidence

 Judgments are made based on statistical results
Decision Theory
Decision Theory

 Assumes that all the groups in a study used to

test a hypothesis are components of the same
population relative to the variables under study
 It is up to the researcher to provide evidence
that there really is a difference
 To test the assumption of no difference, a cutoff
point is selected before analysis
 JUDGING THE
Statistics APPROPRIATENESS OF THE
STATISTICAL TESTS USED
Critical Appraisal

 Factors that must be considered include:

 Study purpose
 Hypotheses, questions, or objectives
 Design

 Level of measurement
Critical Appraisal

 You must judge whether the procedure was

performed appropriately and the results were
interpreted correctly.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses

on differences or associations/relationships.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses

on differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
Data Types

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval/Ratio
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses

on differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
3. Select the study design that most closely fits
the one you are looking at.
Information Needed

1. Decide whether the research question focuses

on differences or associations/relationships.
2. Determine level of measurement.
3. Select the study design that most closely fits
the one you are looking at.
4. Determine whether the study samples are
independent, dependent, or mixed.
Statistical Tests SOME COMMON STATISTICAL
TESTS IN RESEARCH
Chi-Square

 Nominal or ordinal data

 Tests for differences between expected

frequencies if groups are alike and frequencies
actually observed in the data
Chi-Square

Regular No Regular
Exercise Exercise Total
Male 35 15 50
Female 10 40 50
Total 45 55 100
Chi-Square

 Indicate that there is a significant difference

between some of the cells in the table
 The difference may be between only two of the
cells, or there may be differences among all of
the cells.
 Chi-square results will not tell you which cells are
different.
Example
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

 Tests for the presence of a relationship between

two variables

 Works with all types of data

Correlation

 Performed on data collected from a single

sample

 Measures of the two variables to be examined

must be available for each subject in the data
set.
Correlation

 Results
 Nature of the relationship (positive or negative)
 Magnitude of the relationship (–1 to +1)
 Testing the significance of a correlation coefficient
Response Question

 Which are the following are significant?

 A. r = 0.56 (p = 0.03)
 B. r = –0.13 (p = 0.2)
 C. r = 0.65 (p < 0.002)
Example
Factor Analysis

 Examines relationships among large numbers of

variables
 Disentangles those relationships to identify
clusters of variables most closely linked
 Sorts variables according to how closely related
they are to the other variables
 Closely related variables grouped into a factor
Factor Analysis

 Several factors may be identified within a data set

 The researcher must explain why the analysis
grouped the variables in a specific way
 Statistical results indicate the amount of variance in
the data set that can be explained by each factor
and the amount of variance in each factor that
can be explained by a particular variable
Regression Analysis

 Used when one wishes to predict the value of

one variable based on the value of one or
more other variables
Regression Analysis

 The outcome of analysis is the regression

coefficient R

 When R is squared, it indicates the amount of

variance in the data that is explained by the
equation
 R2 = 0.63
Example
T-test

 Requires interval level measures

 Tests for significant differences between two

samples

 Most commonly used test of differences

Example
Analysis of Variance

 ANOVA

 Tests for differences between means

 Allows for comparison of groups

Example
 A SUMMARY OF THE TYPES OF
RESULTS YOU WILL FIND IN
Results EXPERIMENTAL AND
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH STUDIES
Types of Results

Significant and predicted

Nonsignificant

Significant and not predicted

Mixed

Unexpected
Significant and Predicted

 Support logical associations between variables

 As expected by the researcher

Nonsignificant

 Negative or inconclusive results

 No significant differences or relationships

Significant and Unpredicted

 Opposite of what was expected

 Indicate potential flawed logic of researcher

Mixed

 Most common outcome of studies

 One variable may uphold predicted

characteristics, whereas another does not

 Or two dependent measures of the same

variable may show opposite results.
Unexpected

 Relationships between variables that were not

hypothesized and not predicted from the
framework being used
Findings,
Conclusions, &
Implications
Findings

 Results of a research study that have been

translated and interpreted
Statistically Significant Findings

 Significant p-values
Clinically Significant Findings

 Practical application of findings

 Somewhat based on opinion

Conclusions

 A synthesis of findings

 Researchers should not go beyond what the

findings state or interpret too much!
Implications

 The meaning for nursing practice, research,

and/or education

 Specific suggestions for implementing the

findings
Critical QUESTIONS TO ASK
Appraisal
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
Critical Appraisal

1. What statistics were used to described the

characteristics of the sample?
2. Are the data analysis procedures clearly described?
3. Did statistics address the purpose of the study?
4. Did the statistics address the objectives, questions or
hypotheses of the study?
5. Were the statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of each variable?
 QUESTION?
The End! COMMENTS?