ETHICS

• “We are discussing no small

matter, but how we ought to
live.”
Socrates, in Plato’s Republic
The Oxford English Dictionary
definition of PHILOSOPHY:
1. Use of reason and argument in
seeking truth and knowledge of reality,
especially knowledge of the causes
and nature of things and of the
principles governing existence
2. Particular system or set of beliefs
reached by this
 Branches of Philosophy
• Epistemology: What is
knowledge?
• Ontology: What is the nature of
existence?
• Aesthetics: What is beauty?
• Ethics: What should I do?
 Branches of Philosophy
• Logic – the study of correct
reasoning
• Metaphysics – the study of the
fundamental nature of reality
 ETHICS
from the Greek word
“ethos” which means a
characteristic way of
acting
 Characteristics of man as a
rational being :
• 1. there is an internal feeling that tells
us that we must do what is good and
avoid what is evil
• 2. we can distinguish right from wrong,
good from evil, moral from immoral
• 3. we know that we are accountable
and responsible for the consequences
of our actions
 Ethics, or moral philosophy,
asks basic questions about the
good life, about what is better
and worse, about whether
there is any objective right and
wrong, and about how we
know it if there is.
 An ethical theory is

• A systematic exposition
of a particular view
about what is the
nature and basis of
good or right
 An ethical theory
* provides reasons or
norms for judging acts to
be right or wrong and
attempts to give a
justification
 DESCRIPTIVE Ethics:
factual, describes what IS

NORMATIVE Ethics:
evaluative, describes what
SHOULD BE
 WHAT
SHOULD
I DO?
(possible options as answers)
1. EGOISM

You should act in

your own best
interest
2. UTILITARIANISM

You should act to create

the greatest good for
the greatest number
3. KANTIANISM
You should do your moral duty by
following the Categorical Imperative:
• Form 1) Do only that which you would
will to be a universal law
• Form 2) Treat all people as ends, never
as merely means
4. VIRTUE ETHICS

You should be a good

(virtuous) person
having or showing high moral
standards.
morally correct, upright, upstanding, high-minded, right-
minded, right-thinking, principled, exemplary, clean, law
abiding, blameless, guiltless, honest, honorable, unbribable,
incorruptible
5. NATURAL LAW ETHICS

You should act in

accordance with your
human nature and with the
natural laws of the
universe
6. FEMINIST ETHICS

• Recognize and care for all

people as equally human,
and attend ethically to the
full range of human
experience however shaped
by gender.
7. If NO objective truth exists:
• a. Relativism: Do what your society
says is right
• b. Subjectivism: Do what you think is
right
• c. Emotivism: Do what you feel is right
• d. Nihilism: Do whatever. Or not.
Doesn’t matter.
8. DIVINE COMMAND

• Do what God says is

right
What is the right
way of living?
SOCRATES
“ An
unexamined
life is not
worth
living.”
 5 characteristics of moral
standards
• 1. deals with issues that
involve injuries or benefits
• 2. validity rests on the
adequacy of reasons
• 3. based on impartial
considerations
 5 characteristics of moral
standards
• 4. preferred compared to other
standards
• 5. associated with special
emotions (elation, remorse etc.)
 NON-MORAL STANDARDS
• ex. intelligence, aptitudes, physical
attributes
--- created or established by a person or
a group to serve as a measure by which
to gauge how good something or
someone is based on some criteria
 What is ethical relativism?
• The view that ethical values and beliefs
are relative to the various individuals or
societies that hold them.
• The view that NO objective right or
wrong exists.
 MORAL DILEMMA
• -- situations that call for a reflection of
the kind of person we are and what we
consider to be important
• -- situations that call for a difficult
• choice
 moral dilemma conditions

• 1. make a decision as to
which of two or more actions
is best
• 2. can only choose to act on
one
 Three Levels of Moral
Dilemma :
• 1. Systemic/Structural Level (Macro) --
involves the social, political, legal and
economic systems that are in place at
a given time.
• Choices made at this level are affected
by political pressures, economic
conditions and societal atmospheres
and attitudes.
 Three Levels of Moral
Dilemma :
• 2. Organizational Level --
involves groups or organizations.
• Consists of policies of particular
groups, institutions or
professions and its impact on the
choices and actions of its
members.
 Three Levels of Moral
Dilemma :
• 3. Individual/Personal Level --
involves individual decisions, behavior
or character when such is influenced
by peer pressure, personal financial
position and SES.
• Decisions are influenced by culture,
beliefs and values.
FOUNDATION OF
MORALITY :
FREEDOM AND
RESPONSIBILITY
 Drawbacks of Not Using
Freedom to Choose :
• 1. It deprives the
person to make right
choices
 Drawbacks of Not Using
Freedom to Choose :
2. He will be deprived of the
knowledge of the
consequences
of his
choices.
 Drawbacks of Not Using
Freedom to Choose :
3. The person will be
deprived of intellectual moral
growth.
 Freedom and Responsibility
• Choices made come with
consequences.
• Responsibility is the price of freedom
and freedom cannot be separated from
responsibility
• We are responsible for our own actions
and how these actions affect others.
 Characteristics of Moral
Principles :
• 1. PRESCRIPTIVITY –
composed of injunctions
and imperatives
 Characteristics of Moral
Principles :
• a. injunctions – granted by
court, required to do or refrain
from doing a specific action
• b. imperatives – commands,
rules or duty
 Characteristics of Moral
Principles :
• 2. universalizability – what is
right for one person is right
for another
• Ex. Do unto others what you
would have them do unto
you.
 Characteristics of Moral
Principles :
• 3. overridingness – moral
principle takes precedence over
other kinds of considerations
including aesthetic, prudential
and legal ones
 Characteristics of Moral
Principles :
• 4. publicity – moral principles
must be made public so as to
be known
• 5. practicability – must be
workable, must consider the
nature of human beings
 Psychological Egoism
• The view that we all act in our own
interest all the time

• Descriptive: It is a claim about how

people ARE

• NOT an ethical theory, just a possible

foundation for a theory
 Famous Egoist: Thomas Hobbes
• Published “Leviathan” in
1651
• Without strong central
government, Hobbes
says we will be in a
“war of all against all”
• Life in time of war is
“solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish and short”
 Famous Egoist: Adam Smith
• Published “Wealth of
Nations” in 1776
• Intellectual foundation
of capitalism
• Claims everyone will be
better off if we each act
in our own interest
• “Invisible hand” of free
market keeps balance
 Famous Egoist: Ayn Rand
• Author, screenwriter
• Emigrated to US
from USSR in 1926
• Promoted egoism
which she called
“objectivism”, or
‘rational self-interest’
• Wrote “The Virtue of
Selfishness”
• How to become virtuous, according to
Aristotle:
• 1. Practice habits of virtue
Intellectual virtues: can learn from a teacher
-Moral virtues: can only learn through
experience and habit
2. Aim for the Golden Mean
The Golden Mean is the midpoint between
extremes, between deficiency and excess
• An example of the midpoint is the virtue
of courage:
• Too little=cowardly
• Courage= just enough (the mean)
• Too much=foolhardy

• 3. Strive for excellence (arete)

• Develop your character to be the best it
can be
DO men and women reason
differently about morality?
 IF men and women reason
differently about morality, WHY
might that be?
Explanations for a difference MIGHT
include:
1.BIOLOGY
2.SOCIAL TRAINING
3.PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
 1. BIOLOGICAL
INFLUENCES
a) Brain structure
b) Hormones
c) Physical strength/ body and muscle
mass
d) Being able to get pregnant
e) Giving birth
 2. SOCIAL/CULTURAL
INFLUENCE
a) Socialization from birth
b) Education
c) Expectations (vocational, familial)
d) Role training as caregivers
 PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Freud
• Male life task: differentiate from
feminine, develop autonomy
• Female life task: seek similarity to, and
relationship with, feminine
 Traditional Ethical
Perspectives
• FEMININE: • MASCULINE:
• Responsibility • Rights
• Relationship • Individual
• Solidarity • Autonomy
• Personal • Impersonal
• Partial • Impartial
• Private • Public
• Natural • Contractual
• Feeling • Reason
• Compassionate • Fair
• Concrete • Universal