Introduction to Educational

Research

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 American Heritage® Dictionary
Research ‫البحث‬
• Noun:
Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.

• Verb:
To study (something) thoroughly so as to
present in a detailed, accurate manner.
Example: researching the effects of internet.
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Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Research can be defined as the search for

knowledge, or as any systematic investigation,
with an open mind, to establish novel facts,
usually using the scientific method.

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 ‫)عن ويكيبيديا(البحث العلمي‬
‫البحث العلمي هو الوسيلة التي يمكن بواسطتها الوصول إلى‬
‫حلِّ مشكلة محددة‪ ،‬أو اكتشاف حقائق جديدة عن طريق‬
‫المعلومات الدقيقة‪ ،‬كما أن البحث العلمي هو الطريقة الوحيد‬
‫للمعرفة حول العالم ‪،‬وعبارة البحث العلمي مصطلح مترجم‬
‫عن اللغة اإلنجليزية )‪ ،(Scientific Research‬فالبحث‬
‫العلمي يعتمد على الطريقة العلمية‪ ،‬والطريقة العلمية تعتمد‬
‫على األساليب المنظمة الموضوعة في المالحظة وتسجيل‬
‫المعلومات ووصف األحداث وتكوين الفرضيات ‪.‬هي خطوات‬
‫منظمة تهدف إلى االكتشاف وترجمة الحقائق‪.‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
 Scientific Research
‫البحوث العلمية‬
Scientific research relies on the application of
the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity
(‫)تسخير الفضول‬. This research provides scientific
information and theories for the explanation
of nature and the properties of the world
around us. It makes practical applications
possible.

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 Scientific Research
Generally, research is understood to follow a
certain structural process. Though the order of
steps may vary depending on the subject
matter and researcher, the following steps are
usually part of most formal research, both
basic (‫ )البحوث األساسية‬and applied ( ‫البحوث‬
‫)التطبيقية‬:

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 Scientific Research
Hypothesis
• Question: Is there a relationship between
education and income?
• Hypothesis: Income increases with years of
education.
Question: Who is better in math, men or women?
Hypothesis: There is no difference between men
and women in Math. Or, Women are better at
math than men. Or, Men are better at math than
women.

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Scientific Research ‫البحوث العلمية‬
A common misunderstanding is that by this
method a hypothesis could be proven or
tested. Generally a hypothesis is used to make
predictions that can be tested by observing
the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome
is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the
hypothesis is rejected. However, if the
outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the
experiment is said to support the hypothesis.
In this sense, a hypothesis can never be
proven, but rather only supported.
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 Educational Research
‫البحوث التربوية‬
• Hundreds of researchers conduct research on
teaching and learning.
• Educational research is a growing field and
educational researchers are becoming better
trained.
• One purpose of this course is to assist
students in acquiring a general understanding
of research processes and to help them
develop the perspective of a researcher.

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 Methods of Knowing
‫طرق المعرفة‬
• Experience: Fundamental means to
understanding.
– Text example: Touch a hot stove and learn
that heat hurts.
– Additional example: Learn quickest driving
route through living in a city for an
extended time.

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 Methods of Knowing
• Authority: Trusted source.
– Text example: A parent, teacher, newspaper,
or other source informs.
– Additional example: An experienced cab
driver tells you the quickest route through a
city.
• Reasoning: Thinking—using logical thought to
draw conclusions.

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 Inductive Reasoning ‫التفكير االستقرائي‬

• Inductive Reasoning: Developing generalizations

based on observation of a limited number of related
events or experiences
– An instructor reviews research methods texts and
notices sampling content in each text and
concludes that all research methods texts have
sampling
– A teacher knows several student athletes who are
good students and concludes that all student
athletes are good students.

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Deductive Reasoning ‫التفكير االستنتاجي‬
• Deductive Reasoning: Arriving at specific conclusions
based on general principles, observations, or
experiences
– All research textbooks contain a chapter on
sampling. The book you are reading is a research
text and therefore must contain a sampling
chapter.
– All student athletes are good students. Dana is a
student athlete and therefore she must be a good
student.
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 Scientific Method
‫المنهج العلمي أو األسلوب العلمي‬
• Inductive, deductive, authority,
and experience are all limited and
subject to error. Instead, as
researchers, we rely on the
Scientific Method.

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 Scientific Method
Steps of the Scientific Method
– Recognition and identification of a problem
– Formulation of hypothesis
– Data collection
– Data analysis
– Statement of conclusions
• Confirm or disconfirm hypothesis
• Hypothesis: an explanation for the occurrence
of certain behaviors, phenomena, or events.
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 Limitations of the Scientific Method
‫حدود المنهج العلمي‬
• The scientific method can not answer all
questions, especially those of a philosophical
or ethical nature.
• Application of the scientific method can
never capture the full richness of the
context.
• Measurement error is a limitation of the
scientific method.

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 The Scientific Method in Education
‫المنهج العلمي في التعليم‬
• Research: Formal systematic application
of the scientific method to the study of
problems.

• Educational Research: Formal, systematic

application of the scientific method to
the study of educational problems.

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The Scientific Method in Education
• The goal of educational research is to
describe, explain, predict, and control
situations involving human beings.

• There are many challenges faced when

conducting educational research. Many
of those relate to control.

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The Scientific Method in Education
1. Selection and definition of a problem
• A problem is a question of interest.
• The problem can be tested or the question
answered through the collection and
analysis of data.
• Generally researchers use a review of the
existing literature to generate hypotheses
related to their question. (revising of
hypothesis).
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The Scientific Method in Education
2. Execution of research procedures
• Research procedures are dictated by the
research problem and the identified
variables.
• Procedures include activities related to
collecting data about the problem.

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The Scientific Method in Education
3. Analysis of Data
• Data are analyzed such that the researcher
can test the hypothesis or answer the
research question.
• Data analysis often includes statistical
techniques.

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The Scientific Method in Education
4. Drawing and stating conclusions
• Conclusions are based upon analyses of our
data and are stated in terms of the original
hypothesis or research question.
• Conclusions should indicate whether the
hypothesis was rejected or supported.

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The Scientific Method in Education
4. Drawing and stating conclusions
• For those studies that include synthesis of
verbal data, conclusions may be more
tentative.
‫ قد‬، ‫الدراسات التي تشمل تجميع أو تركيب البيانات اللفظية‬
.‫تكون االستنتاجات أكثر من كونها أولية‬

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 There are three basic types of research questions for
research projects. Which type have you written?
Descriptive. A study that is designed primarily to describe
what is going on or what exists. E.g., public opinion
surveys that seek only to describe the proportion of
people who hold various opinions are primarily
descriptive in nature.
Relational. A study that is designed to look at the
relationships between two or more variables. E.g., a
public opinion survey that compares the relationship
between gender and voting preference.
Causal. A study that is designed to determine whether
one or more variables (e.g., a program or treatment
variable) causes or affects one or more outcome
variables.
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 Three types of research questions (cont’d.)
Causal. E.g., If a researcher did a public opinion survey
to determine whether several recent political
advertisements changed voter preferences, she would
essentially be studying whether the advertisements
(cause) changed the proportion of voters who would
vote for one candidate or another (effect).

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 What is a variable?
In order to do research, you must first understand
variables. A variable is something that can change, such as
a value or characteristic.
Examples: age, gender, country, type of test, type of
instruction, agreement with an idea, etc.
An attribute is a specific value or characteristic of a
variable.
Examples: sex or gender have two attributes: male and
female; agreement might have 5 attributes: strongly
disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree.

Shortly, we’ll look at some of the most important variables

in experimental research—independent and dependent
variables.
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What does it mean to control variables?
Control refers to the way the researcher keeps the
conditions of the study constant (the same), so that
differences in replies of two participants are because of
their own differences (e.g., attitudes) and do not result
from participants being asked questions in different
ways. These are the main kinds of control:
• participants asked the same questions the same way
• selecting participants who are similar in the most
important characteristics [Will further discuss under
sampling]
• using consistent methods of data collection 27
 Approaches to Educational Research
‫التعامل مع البحث التربوي‬
• Educational research is often broadly
categorized as qualitative (‫ )النوعي‬or
quantitative (‫)الكمي‬.
–Both quantitative and qualitative
researchers collect and analyze data.
–Both quantitative and qualitative
researchers derive conclusions and
interpretations.
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 Approaches to Educational Research
Quantitative ‫الكمي‬ Qualitative ‫النوعي‬
• Numerical data • Narrative and visual
• Describes, predicts data
or controls variables • Gains insights into
of interest phenomenon of
• The world is interest
relatively uniform, • Knowledge is
stable, and situated and
predictable. contextual. There are
different
perspectives.
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 Approaches to Educational Research
Quantitative Qualitative
• Researchers state • Researchers form
hypothesis, specify foreshadowed (‫)برزت‬
research procedures, problems. They don’t
control but explain
and control context. context.
• Researchers identify • A large amount of data
large samples. is collected over an
• Researchers are extended time in a
interested in natural setting.
statistical • Data are categorized
significance. and organized into
patterns.
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 Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

• Are there differences • What are the social

in the amount of experiences of
discipline referrals middle school girl
between girls and with an Autism
boys with Autism Spectrum Disorder?
Spectrum Disorders?

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 Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

• What variable best • What challenges do

predicts whether first generation
first generation college students
college students stay from small rural
continually enrolled schools experience
in college until as they enroll in
graduation? college?
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 Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

• Do students exposed • How do students

to animated science describe their
materials learn more experiences learning
if the animation is from animated
accompanied by science materials?
sound or no sound?

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 Experimental Research
• In experimental studies researchers
select participants, group participants,
administer treatments, control the
research setting, control the length of
treatment exposure, select research
measures, and are able to draw cause-
effect conclusions.

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 Experimental Research
‫البحوث التجريبية‬
• Experimental research includes at least
one independent variable and the effect
is measured on at least one dependent
variable.
• In experimental research extraneous
variables are controlled.

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Dependent and Independent Variable
The Effects of the Independent Variable
On The Dependent Variable.

Independent Variable = what you manipulate,

i.e. your intervention

Dependent Variable = what you are measuring,

i.e. the behavior you want to change

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 Experimental Research
– Is there an effect of corrective feedback
‫مالحظات تصحيحية‬on students’ achievement
on final physics test scores and interest in
physics?
• The independent variable is corrective
feedback.
• The dependent variables are final test
scores and interest.

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 Experimental Research
• Sometimes experimental research is not possible in
educational contexts because of difficulties with
random selection and random assignment.
• Examples:
– Are there differences in achievement between
students randomly assigned to one of two
problem solving strategy conditions?
• The independent variable is problem solving
strategy conditions.
• The dependent variable is achievement.

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 Classification of Research
‫تصنيف البحوث‬
• The approach used in a study is
determined by the research problem.
• Often the same general problem can be
approached from several different types
of study.
• Research methods are selected after the
topic or question is determined.

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Experimental Research Methods

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 Survey Research
‫البحوث المسحية‬
• Survey research determines and reports the
‘current status’ of the subject of study.
• Survey research often collects numerical data
to test hypotheses or answer questions.
• Survey research may examine preferences,
attitudes, or opinions.
– e.g., What do parents feel about national
teacher certification?
– e.g., To what degree do students report test
anxiety before the SAT exam?
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 Correlational Research
‫البحوث الترابطية‬
• Correlational research provides a quantitative
measure of relationship between or among variables.
• This measure is expressed as a correlation
coefficient.
– Ranges from -1 to 1; 0 indicates no relationship
• Correlational studies do not indicate cause-effect
(‫ )السبب والنتيجة‬relations among variables.
– e.g., A high correlation between self-concept and
achievement does not mean that self-concept
causes higher achievement.

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 Causal-Comparative Research
‫ البحوث السببية‬- ‫المقارنة‬
• Causal-comparative research
attempts to determine the cause
or reason for existing differences.
• The grouping variable is the
potential cause ( ‫المتغير المستقل‬
‫)هوالسبب المحتمل‬.
• The dependent variable
(‫ )المتغيرالتابع‬is the effect (‫)تأثير‬.
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 Causal-Comparative Research
‫ السببية‬- ‫البحوث المقارنة‬
• Examples
– Are there differences in final exam
performance between students given a
practice exam and those given more time
for independent study?
– Are there differences between elderly men
and women who recently experienced a
stroke in the amount of minutes of exercise
during rehabilitation prior to release from
hospital?

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 Single-Subject Research
‫بحث قائم على شخص واحد‬
• Single-subject experimental designs are used to
study behavior change within a person or a group as
they are exposed to an intervention or a treatment.
• In single-subject research the size of the sample is
one.
– e.g., The effects of graphing intervention on off-
task behavior.
– e.g., The effects of a cessation program on
smoking.

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 For Practice…
‫للممارسة‬...
• Given the general topic of year-round
schooling, suggest how this topic can be
addressed differently by each one of the types
of research.
‫ اقترح الكيفية التي‬،‫بالنظر إلى موضوع التعليم على مدار السنة‬
‫يمكن من خاللها معالجة هذا الموضوع على نحو مختلف لكل‬
‫واحد من أنواع البحوث على حده‬.

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 Potential Answers
‫اإلجابات المحتملة‬
• Survey: What are parents’ opinions
about year-round schooling?
• Correlational: Is there a relationship
between standardized test scores and
year-round schooling?
• Causal-Comparative: Are there
differences in amount of content
mastered between children enrolled in
year-round schooling versus those in
traditional schooling?
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 Potential Answers
• Experimental: Are there differences in self-
esteem between those students randomly
assigned to districts with year-round schooling
versus those assigned to traditional schooling?
• Single subject: What are the effects of year-
round schooling on the vocabulary use of
students who are reading disabled?

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 Qualitative Research ‫البحث النوعي‬
• Qualitative researchers seek rich understandings.
• Qualitative studies are conducted through sustained
in-depth, in-context, research.
• There are numerous approaches to qualitative
research.
– e.g., historical research, symbolic interaction,
grounded theory, ethnology, phenomenology

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 Qualitative Research
‫البحث النوعي‬
1. Qualitative researchers spend a great
amount of time in the field and engage
in person-to-person interactions.
2. Qualitative data are analyzed
inductively.
3. Qualitative researchers avoid making
assumptions and remain open to
alternative explanations.
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 Narrative Research ‫البحث السردي‬
• Narrative researchers study how
different people experience their world.
• Narrative research allows for people to
tell the story of their lives.
• Narrative researchers often focus on one
person and collect stories of that
person’s life.

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 Narrative Research
• Narrative researchers establish a trusting
personal relationship with their
participants.
• The narrative is the story of the
phenomenon being investigated and also
the method of inquiry.

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 Narrative Research
• Examples
– What is the experience of students in
a new co-ed dormitory?
–How does a winning coach react when
faced with a less skilled team and a
losing season?

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 Ethnographic Research
‫البحث اإلثنوغرافي‬
• Ethnography is the study of cultural patterns
and perspectives of participants in their
natural settings.
• Ethnographers avoid interpretations early and
enter the setting slowly.
• Ethnographers have personal relationships
with their participants.
• Ethnographic researchers collect data in
waves, re-entering the site several times.

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 Ethnographic Research
• The resultant ethnography is a narrative that
presents participants’ everyday events.
• During data collection the ethnographer
identifies categories and enters themes into
these categories.
– e.g., How does the returning student
population adjust to technology enhanced
instruction in entry level college courses?

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 Case Study Research
‫أبحاث دراسة الحالة‬
• Case study (‫ )دراسة حالة‬is a qualitative approach
that examines a bounded system for study.
• Case study includes specific design, data
collection techniques, and data analysis
strategies.
– e.g., What are the challenges faced by a
school board with shrinking district
population and mandated facility
renovations?

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 Qualitative Research Process
‫عملية البحث النوعي‬
1. Identifying a research topic
• The initial topic is often narrowed.
2. Reviewing the literature
• Previous research is examined to gather
important information.
3. Selecting participants
• Generally fewer purposely sampled participants
than in quantitative studies.
4. Collecting data
• Generally interviews, observations, and artifacts
serve as data.
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 Qualitative Research Process
5. Analyzing and interpreting data
• Researchers analyze for themes and
generate interpretations.
6. Reporting and evaluating the research
• Researchers summarize and integrate the
data in narrative and visual form.

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 Potential Answers
• Narrative: What is the experience of
Tom, an eighth grade teacher, as he
modifies his curriculum to accommodate
year-round schooling?
• Ethnographic: What are the experiences
of migrant families in a district that has
turned to year-round schooling?

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 Research by Purpose
‫البحوث حسب الغرض‬
• Basic and applied research
– Basic research is conducted to develop or refine
theory.
– Applied research is conducted to apply or test a
theory.
• Evaluation research
– Evaluation research is a form of applied research
that involves data collection for decision making.
– Evaluation research may be formative or
summative.

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 Research by Purpose
• Research and Development (R & D)
– Research and development is the process of
researching needs (‫ )بحث في االحتياجات‬and
developing products (‫ )تطوير منتجات‬to fit
those needs.
• Action Research
– Action research is a systematic inquiry
conducted by teachers, principals, or other
stakeholders.
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