Dedication: I Would Like To Take The Time To Thank God For Giving Me The Ability To Help Others

Dedication
I would like to take the time to thank God

for giving me the ability to help others.
8.1 Conductor Resistance
Metals intended to carry electric current are called
conductors or wires, and by their nature, they oppose
the flow of electrons.
Conductors can be solid or stranded, and they can be
made from copper, aluminum, silver or even gold.
The conductor’s opposition to the flow of current depends
on the conductor material (copper/aluminum), its
cross-sectional area (wire size), its length, and its
operating temperature.
Material
 Silver is the best conductor because it has the lowest
resistance, but its high cost limits its use to special
applications.
 Aluminum is often used when weight or costs are
important considerations.
 Copper is the most common type of metal used for
electrical conductors. Fig 8–1
Cross-Sectional Area
The cross-sectional area of a conductor is the conductor’s
surface area expressed in circular mils. Fig 8-2
The greater the conductor cross-sectional area (the larger
the conductor), the greater the number of available
electron paths and the lower the conductor resistance.
Conductors are sized according to the American Wire
Gage (AWG), which ranges from 40 AWG to 4/0 AWG.
Conductors larger than 4/0 are identified in circular mils
such as 250,000 cmil (250 kcmil), and 500,000 cmil,
(500 kcmil) etc. Fig 8-3
Conductor resistance varies inversely with the conductor’s
diameter; that is, the smaller the wire size, the greater
the resistance, and the larger the wire size, the lower
the resistance. Fig 8–4
 “Resistance” is the total opposition to current flow in a
dc circuit, measured in ohms.
 “Impedance” is the total opposition to current flow in
an ac circuit, measured in ohms.
Conductor resistance varies inversely with the conductor’s
diameter; that is, the smaller the wire size, the greater
the resistance, or the larger the wire size, the lower
the resistance/impedance.
Size Resistance Area (cmil)
 14 AWG 3.140 ohms 4,110
 12 AWG 1.980 ohms 6,530
 10 AWG 1.240 ohms 10,380
 8 AWG 0.778 ohms 16,510
 6 AWG 0.491 ohms 26,240
Temperature
The resistance of a conductor changes with changing
temperature; this is called temperature coefficient.
Positive temperature coefficient indicates that as the
temperature rises, the conductor resistance will also
rise.
8.2 Conductor Resistance – Direct-
Current Circuits, [Chapter 9, Table 8]
The NEC lists the resistance and area in circular mils for
dc circuit conductors.
The dc conductor resistances listed in Table 8 apply to
conductor lengths of 1,000 ft.
Conductor Resistance Copper
Question: What is the dc resistance of 420 ft. of 6 AWG
copper? Fig 8–5
Conductor Resistance Aluminum
Question: What is the resistance of 1,490 ft of 3 AWG
aluminum?
The resistance of 3 AWG aluminum 1,000 ft long is 0.403
ohms, Chapter 9, Table 8.
The resistance of 1,490 ft is:
(0.403 ohms/1,000 ft) x 1,490 ft = 0.60 ohms
8.3 Conductor Impedance – Alternating-
Current Circuits
In dc circuits, the only property that opposes the flow of
electrons is resistance.
Current Circuits
In ac circuits, the expanding and collapsing magnetic field
within the conductor induces an electromotive force
that opposes the flow of ac.
In addition, ac flowing through a conductor generates
small, erratic, independent currents called eddy
currents. Fig 8-6
Current Circuits
Eddy currents are greatest in the center of the
conductors and repel the flowing electrons toward the
conductor surface; this is known as skin effect. Fig 8–7
Because of skin effect, the effective cross-sectional area
of an ac conductor is reduced, which results in an
increased opposition to current flow.
8.4 Alternating-Current Impedance as
Compared to Direct-Current Resistance
The opposition to current flow is greater for ac circuits
(impedance) as compared to dc circuits (resistance)
because of inductive reactance, eddy currents, and
skin effect.
The following two tables give examples of the difference
between ac impedance as compared to dc resistance.
Fig 8–8
8.4 Alternating-Current Impedance as
Compared to Direct-Current Resistance
The table shows that the larger the conductor size, the
greater the difference there is between conductor
impedance as compared to conductor resistance for an
alternating-current circuit.
8.5 Impedance [Chapter 9, Table 9 of the NEC]
An alternating-current conductor’s opposition to current

flow (resistances and reactance) is listed in Chapter 9,
Table 9 of the NEC.
The total opposition to current flow in an ac circuit is
called impedance and this is dependent on the
conductor’s material (copper or aluminum) and on the
magnetic property of the raceway or cable in which
they are installed.
The first row of Chapter 9, Table 9 shows “Ohms to

Neutral per Kilometer” and directly under that it reads
“Ohms to Neutral per 1,000 Feet.”
For example, the ac resistance (impedance) for 2 AWG in

PVC is 0.62 ohms per kilometer and 0.19 ohms per
1,000 ft.
We will only be using the “Ohms to Neutral per 1,000
Feet” for all calculations.
Question: What is the ac ohms-to-neutral impedance of

250 kcmil that is 1,000 ft long?
Copper conductor in nonmetallic raceway 0.052 ohms
Copper conductor in aluminum raceway 0.057 ohms
Copper conductor in steel raceway 0.054 ohms

250 kcmil Aluminum that is 1,000 ft long?
Aluminum conductor in nonmetallic raceway 0.085 ohms
Aluminum conductor in aluminum raceway 0.090 ohms
Aluminum conductor in steel raceway 0.086 ohms
Ohms-to-Neutral Impedance
420 ft of 2/0 AWG copper installed in a steel raceway?
Fig 8–9

169 ft of 500 kcmil aluminum conductors installed in an
aluminum conduit?
The ohms-to-neutral impedance of 500 kcmil installed in

an aluminum conduit is 0.048 ohms per 1,000 ft.
Ohms-to-neutral impedance of 169 ft of 500 kcmil in an
aluminum conduit:
(0.048 ohms/1,000 ft) x 169 ft = 0.0081 ohms
Converting Copper to Aluminum or Aluminum to Copper

When requested to determine the replacement conductor
for copper or aluminum, the following steps should be
helpful:
Step 1: Determine the ohms-to-neutral impedance of the

existing conductor using Table 9, Chapter 9 for 1,000 ft
for ac circuits, or Table 8, Chapter 8 for dc circuits.
Step 2: Using Table 9, Chapter 9, locate a replacement
conductor that has an ohms-to-neutral impedance of
not more than the existing conductors.
Step 3: Verify that the replacement conductor has an
ampacity [Table 310.16] sufficient for the load.
Aluminum to Copper
A 240V, 100A, single-phase load is wired with 2/0 AWG
aluminum conductors in a steel raceway.
Question: What size copper wire can we use to replace
the aluminum wires and not have a greater voltage
drop?
Note: The wire selected must have an ampacity of at
least 100A. Fig 8–10
Determining the Resistance of Parallel Conductors

The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than
the smallest resistor.
The equal resistors’ formula can be used to determine the

resistance total of parallel conductors:
Resistance Total = Resistance per Conductor/Number of
Parallel Conductors
DC Resistance of Parallel Conductors

Question: What is the dc resistance for two 500 kcmil
conductors in parallel? Fig 8–11
8.6 Voltage-Drop Considerations
Part B. Voltage-Drop Calculations
The voltage drop (VD) of a circuit is in direct proportion
to the conductor’s resistance (R) and the magnitude
(size) of the current (I).
VD = I x R
The longer the conductor, the greater the conductor
resistance, the greater the conductor voltage drop; or
the greater the current, the greater the conductor
voltage drop.
Undervoltage for inductive loads can cause overheating,
inefficiency and a shorter life span for electrical
equipment.
This is especially true in such solid-state equipment as
TVs, data-processing equipment (computers for
example), and similar equipment.
When a conductor resistance causes the voltage to drop
below an acceptable point, the conductor size should
be increased. Fig 8–12
8.7 NEC Voltage-Drop Recommendations
Contrary to many beliefs, the NEC generally does not
require conductors to be increased in size to
accommodate voltage drop.
However, it does recommend that we consider the effects
of conductor voltage drop when sizing conductors.
See some of these recommendations in the following Fine
Print Notes:
 210.19(A)(1) FPN 4
 215.2(A) FPN 2
 310.15(A)(1)
Fine Print Notes in the NEC are recommendations, not
requirements [90.5(C)].
The Code recommends that the maximum combined
voltage drop for both the feeder and branch circuit
should not exceed five percent, and the maximum on
the feeder or branch circuit should not exceed three
percent. Fig 8–13
There may be other standards besides the NEC that
specify voltage-drop requirements on a specific project.
NEC Voltage-Drop Recommendation
Question: What is the minimum NEC recommended
operating volts for a 115V rated load that is connected
to a 120V source? Fig 8–14
8.8 Determining Circuit Conductors’
Voltage Drop
When the circuit conductors have already been installed,
the voltage drop of the conductors can be determined
by the Ohm’s Law method or by the formula method:
Voltage Drop
Ohm’s Law Method – Single-Phase Only
Single-Phase VD = I x R
 VD = Conductor voltage drop expressed in volts.
 I = The load in amperes at 100%, not at 125%, for
motors or continuous loads.
 R = Conductor Resistance, Chapter 9, Table 8 for dc
resistance or Chapter 9, Table 9 for ac impedance.
Voltage Drop
For conductors 1/0 AWG and smaller, the difference in
resistance between dc and ac circuits is so little that it
can be ignored.
In addition, you can ignore the small difference in
resistance between stranded and solid wires.
Voltage Drop
Question: What is the voltage drop of two 12 AWG
conductors that supply a 16A, 120V load located 100 ft
from the power supply? Fig 8–15
Voltage Drop
Voltage Drop 240V
A 240V, 24A, single-phase load is located 160 ft from the
panelboard and is wired with 10 AWG.
Question: What is the voltage drop of the circuit
conductors? Fig 8–16
Voltage Drop
Voltage Drop Using the Formula Method
In addition to the Ohm’s Law method, the following
formula can be used to determine the conductor
voltage drop:
Voltage Drop
Single-Phase: VD = (2 x K x I x D)/Cmil
 K: Copper – 12.9 ohms, Aluminum – 21.2 ohms

DC at an operating temperature of 75ºC.
 I: Ampere: The load in ampere at 100%.
 D: Distance: One way from the power supply.
 Cmil: Circular mils area listed in Chapter 9, Table 8.
Voltage Drop
Voltage Drop – Single-Phase
A 24A, 240V load is located 160 ft from a panelboard and
is wired with 10 AWG.
Question: What is the approximate voltage drop of the
branch-circuit conductors? Fig 8–17
Voltage Drop
Three-Phase: VD = (√3 x K x I x D)/Cmil

 Cmil: Circular mils area listed in Chapter 9, Table 8.
 √3 = 1.732
Voltage Drop
Voltage Drop – Three-Phase
A 36 kVA, three-phase load rated 208V is located 80 ft
from the panelboard and is wired with 1 AWG
aluminum.
Question: What is the approximate voltage drop of the
feeder circuit conductors? Fig 8–18
8.9 Sizing Conductors to Prevent
Excessive Voltage Drop
The size of a conductor (actually its resistance) affects
voltage drop.
If we want to decrease the voltage drop of a circuit, we
can increase the cross-sectional area of the conductor
(reduce its resistance).
When sizing conductors to prevent excessive voltage
drop, use the following formulas:
Single-Phase: Cmil = (2 x K x I x D)/VD
Three-Phase: Cmil = (√3 x K x I x D)/VD
 CmilL: Circular mils area listed in Table 8.

 VD: Voltage drop in volts.
Size Conductor – Single-Phase
A 5 hp motor is located 90 ft from a 120/240V, single-
phase panelboard.
Question: What size conductor should be used to limit the
voltage drop to 3% or less if the motor nameplate
indicates 26A at 230V? (Terminals rated 75ºC). Fig 8–
19
Size Conductor – Three-Phase
A three-phase, 15 kVA load rated 480V (18A) is located
390 ft from the panelboard.
Question: What size conductor is required to prevent the
voltage drop from exceeding three percent? Fig 8–20
8.10 Limiting Conductor Length to
Minimize Voltage Drop
Limiting the length of the conductors can also reduce
voltage drop.
• Distance – Single-Phase
Question: What is the maximum distance a 240V, single-
phase, 10 kVA load can be located from the panelboard
so the voltage drop does not exceed three percent?
The load is wired with 8 AWG. Fig 8-21
Distance – Three-Phase
Question: What is the maximum distance a 37.5 kVA,
480V, three-phase transformer, wired with 6 AWG, can
be located from the panelboard so the voltage drop
does not exceed three percent? Fig 8–22
8.11 Limiting Current to Limit Voltage
Drop
Sometimes the only method of limiting the circuit voltage
drop is to limit the load on the conductors.
Drop
An existing installation contains 1/0 AWG aluminum
conductors in a nonmetallic raceway to a panelboard
located 220 ft from a 240V power source.
Question: What is the maximum load that can be placed
on the panelboard so the NEC recommendation for
voltage drop is not exceeded? Fig 8–23
Drop
Maximum Load – Three-Phase
An existing installation contains 1 AWG conductors in an
aluminum raceway to a panelboard located 300 ft from
a 240/480V, three-phase power source.
Question: What is the maximum load the conductors can
carry so the NEC recommendation for voltage drop is
not exceeded? Figs 8–24 and 8-25
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The End – Unit 8

Dedication: I Would Like To Take The Time To Thank God For Giving Me The Ability To Help Others

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Dedication

I would like to take the time to thank God

An alternating-current conductor’s opposition to current

The first row of Chapter 9, Table 9 shows “Ohms to

For example, the ac resistance (impedance) for 2 AWG in

Question: What is the ac ohms-to-neutral impedance of

Question: What is the ac ohms-to-neutral impedance of

Question: What is the ac ohms-to-neutral impedance of

The ohms-to-neutral impedance of 500 kcmil installed in

Converting Copper to Aluminum or Aluminum to Copper

Step 1: Determine the ohms-to-neutral impedance of the

Determining the Resistance of Parallel Conductors

The equal resistors’ formula can be used to determine the

DC Resistance of Parallel Conductors

 K: Copper – 12.9 ohms, Aluminum – 21.2 ohms

 K: Copper – 12.9 ohms, Aluminum – 21.2 ohms

 CmilL: Circular mils area listed in Table 8.

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