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෩ 𝑗4𝜋𝑎 𝑓 + , −
𝐵𝑇
≤ 𝑓 ≤ ,
Circuit
𝐵𝑇 (contd.) 𝐵𝑇
o 𝐻1 𝑓 = ቐ 2 2 2
0, else.
Complex envelope of FM signal 𝑠 𝑡 :
𝑡
1) 𝑠ǁ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Fourier transform of complex envelope of output of slope circuit:
𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝑇
𝑗2𝜋𝑎 𝑓 + ሚ
𝑆(𝑓), − ≤𝑓≤ ,
𝑆ሚ1 𝑓 = ቐ 2 2 2
0, else.
• Complex envelope of output of slope circuit:
ǁ
𝑑𝑠(𝑡)
2) 𝑠1ǁ 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑗𝜋𝐵𝑇 𝑠(𝑡)
ǁ
• By 1) and 2):
2𝑘𝑓 𝑡
𝑠1ǁ 𝑡 = 𝑗𝜋𝐵𝑇 𝑎𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡) exp 𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐵𝑇
• Output of slope circuit:
2𝑘𝑓 𝑡 𝜋
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝜋𝐵𝑇 𝑎𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝐵𝑇
𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 2
• How can we obtain the message signal 𝑚(𝑡) from 𝑠1 𝑡 ?
2𝑘𝑓
using an envelope detector, since 𝑚(𝑡) < 1 for all 𝑡
𝐵𝑇
• Output of envelope detector:
2𝑘𝑓
𝜋𝐵𝑇 𝑎𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡)
𝐵𝑇
Demodulation Using Slope Circuit
(contd.)
• Recall: output of envelope detector:
2𝑘𝑓
𝜋𝐵𝑇 𝑎𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡)
𝐵𝑇
• How does a
stereo receiver
process 𝑚 𝑡 ?
as shown in Fig.
Ref: “Communication
Systems” by S. Haykin
and M. Moher, 5th ed
Zero-Crossing Detectors
• Want to demodulate FM signal:
𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• First, FM signal is input to a hard limiter, i.e., circuit
with following input-output characteristic:
1, if 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 > 0,
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = ቊ
−1, if 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 < 0.
• Output of hard limiter is:
square wave with time-varying pulse widths
• How should square wave be processed to achieve
FM demodulation?
• Square wave is input to a digital counter:
rate at which counter increments is directly proportional
to instantaneous frequency of 𝑠(𝑡)
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
• System that can be used for FM demodulation
• Consists of following components connected together in form of feedback loop (see fig.):
Multiplier
Loop filter
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• Input to PLL is FM signal:
𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Initially, VCO adjusted such that when control voltage 𝑣(𝑡) is 0:
1) Frequency of VCO is exactly carrier freq. 𝑓𝑐 of unmodulated carrier wave
2) VCO output has a 90° phase-shift w.r.t. unmodulated carrier wave
• VCO output:
𝑡
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 0 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
where 𝑘𝑣 is frequency sensitivity of VCO
• Objective: To recover message signal at VCO output, i.e., to ensure that:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑚(𝑡), where 𝑐 is a constant
Ref: “Communication
Systems” by S. Haykin
and M. Moher, 5th ed
• Recall:
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙1 (𝑡) , Non-Linear Model of PLL
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙2 (𝑡) ,
𝑡 𝑡
where 𝜙1 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 and 𝜙2 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 0 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Multiplier output is low-pass filtered and 𝑒(𝑡) is output of LPF
• So 𝑒(𝑡):
𝑘𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑣 sin 𝜙𝑒 (𝑡)
where 𝜙𝑒 𝑡 = 𝜙1 𝑡 − 𝜙2 (𝑡) and gain of multiplier is assumed to be 2𝑘𝑚
• If loop filter is a linear system with impulse response ℎ(𝑡), then 𝑣(𝑡):
∞
−∞ 𝑒 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• So we get the following integro-differential equation:
𝑑𝜙𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝜙 𝑡
1 ∞
1) 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 − 2𝜋𝐾0 −∞ sin 𝜙𝑒 (𝜏) ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
where 𝐾0 = 𝑘𝑣 𝑘𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑣
• Equation in 1) difficult to analyse due to non-linear term sin 𝜙𝑒 (𝜏)
• So next, we linearize the model to simplify the analysis
Ref: “Communication
Systems” by S. Haykin
and M. Moher, 5th ed
Linear Model of PLL
• Recall:
𝑑𝜙𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝜙1 𝑡 ∞
1) 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡
− 2𝜋𝐾0 −∞ sin 𝜙𝑒 (𝜏) ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• When 𝜙𝑒 𝑡 = 0, the PLL said to be in phase-lock
• When |𝜙𝑒 𝑡 | ≪ 1 for all 𝑡, PLL said to be in near phase-
lock
then we use the approx. sin 𝜙𝑒 (𝜏) ≈ 𝜙𝑒 (𝜏)
• Equation 1) reduces to:
𝑑𝜙𝑒 𝑡 ∞ 𝑑𝜙1 𝑡
2) 𝑑𝑡
+ 2𝜋𝐾0 −∞ 𝜙𝑒 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 =
𝑑𝑡
• How can we analyze 2)?
take Fourier transforms on both sides
Ref: “Communication
Systems” by S. Haykin
and M. Moher, 5th ed
• Recall: Linear Model of PLL (contd.)
𝑑𝜙𝑒 𝑡 ∞ 𝑑𝜙1 𝑡
1) 𝑑𝑡
+ 2𝜋𝐾0 −∞ 𝜙𝑒 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝑡
• Taking Fourier transforms, we get:
1
Φ𝑒 𝑓 = 1+𝐿 Φ1 (𝑓),
𝑓
𝐻(𝑓)
where 𝐿 𝑓 = 𝐾0 𝑗𝑓
𝐾0
• Recall: 𝑒(𝑡) ≈ 𝜙 (𝑡)
𝑘𝑣 𝑒
• 𝑉(𝑓):
𝑗𝑓𝐿(𝑓)
Φ (𝑓)
𝑘𝑣 (1+𝐿 𝑓 ) 1
• How should 𝐿(𝑓) be chosen in order to ensure that 𝑣(𝑡) is approx. proportional
to 𝑚(𝑡)?
We choose 𝐿(𝑓) such that 𝐿 𝑓 ≫ 1 in the baseband
• 𝑣(𝑡) ≈:
1 𝑑𝜙1
2𝜋𝑘𝑣 𝑑𝑡
• So 𝑣(𝑡) ≈:
𝑘𝑓
𝑚(𝑡)
𝑘𝑣
• Thus, frequency demodulation achieved
Ref: “Communication
Systems” by S. Haykin
and M. Moher, 5th ed
Effect of Sending FM Signal over Non-linear
• Consider FM signal:
Channel
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑡)
𝑡
where 𝜙 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Sent over a channel with following input-output characteristic:
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣𝑖2 𝑡 + 𝑎3 𝑣𝑖3 𝑡
where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 are constants
1
• Recall the trigonometric identity: cos 3 𝜃 = 4 3cos(𝜃) + cos(3𝜃)
• Output of channel:
1 3 1 1
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 + 𝑎3 𝐴3𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜙(𝑡) + 𝑎3 𝐴3𝑐 cosሾ6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
2 4 2 4
Effect of Sending AM Signal over Non-linear
Channel
• Consider AM signal:
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
• Sent over a channel with following input-output characteristic:
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣𝑖2 𝑡 + 𝑎3 𝑣𝑖3 𝑡
where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 are constants
• Output of channel:
1 3
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 2
+ ቀ𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑎3 𝐴3𝑐 ሾ1 +
2 4
Amplitude Variations in FM Signal
• Recall: FM signal:
𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚
𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• When FM signal sent over a channel, several factors (e.g., channel noise
and fading) can cause amplitude to vary
• So received signal is of form:
𝑡
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• If 𝑟 𝑡 directly input to FM demodulator:
output would be distorted version of 𝑚(𝑡)
• E.g.:
Recall that FM signal can be demodulated by inputting it to differentiator and
inputting output of differentiator to an envelope detector
Output of this differentiator when 𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 :
𝑡
o 𝐴𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡) sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝜋
When 𝐴 𝑡 is not a constant:
𝑑𝐴(𝑡)
o There is an additional term containing in output of differentiator
𝑑𝑡
o Even if this term is neglected, output of envelope detector is 𝐴(𝑡) 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 ;
hence, output is distorted version of 𝑚(𝑡)
• Hence, technique required to suppress variation in amplitude of received
signal 𝑟 𝑡 before inputting it to FM demodulator
Amplitude Variations in FM Signal (contd.)
• Recall: received signal is of form 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑡 cos ቂ2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +