Directing

Definition
 "Activating deals with the steps a manager takes to get sub-
ordinates and others to carry out plans" - Newman and Warren.

Characteristics

 Elements of Management

 Continuing Function

 Pervasive Function

 Creative Function

 Linking function

 Management of Human Factor

Elements of Directing
The three elements of directing are

 Motivation
 Leadership
 Communication
Creativity and Innovation
 Creativity is creation of new ideas and Innovation is implementation of the new ideas.
There cannot be innovation without creativity. There can be creativity without
innovation but it has no value.

Steps involved in creativity

Motivation and Individual Needs
 Motivation
 The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach
organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy
some individual need
 Scott defines, “a process of stimulating people in action to
accomplish desired goals”
 Need
 An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive
 SATISFACTION
 Employee satisfaction (Job satisfaction) is the terminology used to
describe whether employees are happy and contented and fulfilling
their desires and needs at work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION
 Motivation is an Internal Feeling
 Motivation is Related to Needs
 Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour
 Motivation can be either Positive or Negative
Types of motivation
 Positive – credits, praises, delegation of authority
 Negative – based on force and fear
Components of Motivation

Motivation

Effort

Organizational Needs
Goals
 JOB DESIGN
 It is the process of Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or over
coming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and
mechanistic tasks.

Approaches to job design include:

Job Enlargement:
 Job enlargement changes the jobs to include more and/or different tasks. Job
enlargement should add interest to the work but mayor may not give employees
more responsibility.

Job Rotation:
 Job rotation moves employees from one task to another. It distributes the group
tasks among a number of employees.

Job Enrichment:
 Job enrichment allows employees to assume more responsibility, accountability, and
independence when learning new tasks or to allow for greater participation and
new opportunities.
Early Theories Of Motivation
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
 There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need becomes
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
 Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex
 Safety: physical safety
 Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship
 Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, and achievement); external
(status, recognition, and attention)
 Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d)
 Theory X (McGregor)
 The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to
avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform.
 Theory Y
 The assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility,
and can exercise self-direction.

Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment, high

productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
(Japanese management)
Theory X and Theory Y Premises
Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d)
 Motivation-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)
 Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic
factors are related to job dissatisfaction.
 Hygiene factors
 Factors, such as working conditions and salary, that, when adequate, may
eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job
satisfaction.

 Motivators
 Factors, such as recognition and growth, that can increase job satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Contrasting view of satisfaction &
dissatisfaction

Presence Absence
Contemporary Theories Of Motivation
 Three-Needs Theory (McClelland)
 The needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are major
motives in work.
1. Need for achievement (nAch)
 The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed.
2. Need for power (nPow)
 The need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise.
3. Need for affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Contemporary Theories…
 Equity Theory (Adams)
 Employees perceive what they get from a job situation
(outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then
compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome
ratios of relevant others.
 Referent
 Is, in equity theory, the other persons, the systems, or the
personal experiences against which individuals compare
themselves to assess equity.
 The choice of a particular set of referents is related to the information
available about referents as well as to the perceived relevance.
Equity Theory Relationships
Equity Theory: Individual Judgments
 When employees perceive an inequity they may:
 Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes.
 Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or
outcomes.
 Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes.
 Choose a different comparison referent.
 Quit their job.
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
 An individual tends to act in a certain way, in the expectation
that the act will be followed by given outcome, and according
to the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
 The extent to which individuals are motivated to perform to get
a reward of value to them is based on their belief that their
performance will result in the reward they want.
Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
 Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with
employee wants.
 Addresses why employees view certain outcomes (rewards)
as attractive or unattractive.
 Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors,
rewards, and organizational goals.
 Is concerned with individual perceptions and the provision of
feedback.
Expectancy Relationships (Linkages)
 Effort–Performance
 The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance
 Performance–Reward
 The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the
attainment of a desired outcome
 Attractiveness
 The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward that
can be achieved on the job.
Simplified Expectancy Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
Steps in Motivating Employees
1. Recognize individual differences.
2. Match people to jobs.
3. Use goals.
4. Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable.
5. Individualize rewards.
6. Link rewards to performance.
7. Check the system for equity.
8. Don’t ignore money.
Contemporary Issues in Motivation
 Flexibility: The Key To Motivating A Diverse Workforce
 Recognizing the different personal needs and goals of
individuals.
 Providing a diversity of rewards to match the varied needs of
employees.
 Being flexible in accommodating the cultural differences within
a diverse workforce when attempting to motivate workers.
 Compensation Alternatives

Pay-for-Performance
Options

Competency-
Broad- Stock
Based
Banding Options
Compensation
 Work-Life Balance
Alternative Work
Schedules

Flextime Job Sharing Telecommuting

Managers Versus Leaders
“Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders.”
 Managers
 Persons whose influence on others is limited to the appointed
managerial authority of their positions to reward and punish.
 Leaders
 Persons with managerial and personal power who can influence
others to perform actions beyond those that could be dictated
by those persons’ formal (position) authority alone.
LEADERSHIP
 Leadership is defined as influence, the art or process of
influencing people so that they will strive willingly and
enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals.

 The leadership style are: a) Autocratic style

b) Democratic Style c) Laissez Faire Style
Leadership theories
Great man theory
Assumptions
 Leaders are born and not made.
 Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.

Transformational Leadership
 Assumptions
 People will follow a person who inspires them.
 A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
 The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.
Trait Theories Of Leadership
 Trait Theories of Leadership
 Theories that attempt to isolate characteristics that differentiate
leaders from nonleaders
 Attempts to identify traits that always differentiate leaders from followers
and effective leaders from ineffective leaders have failed.
 Attempts to identify traits consistently associated with leadership have
been more successful.
Six Traits That Differentiate Leaders from Nonleaders

1. Drive
2. Desire to lead
3. Honesty and integrity
4. Self-confidence
5. Intelligence
6. Job-relevant knowledge
Behavioral Theories Of Leadership
 Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 Attempt to isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders
from ineffective leaders.
 Behavioral studies focus on identifying critical behavioral
determinants of leadership that, in turn, could be used to train
people to become leaders.
Identifiable Leadership Behaviors
 Autocratic Style of Leadership
 Centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral
decisions, and limits employee participation.
 Democratic Style of Leadership
 Involves employees in decision making, delegates authority,
encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals,
and uses feedback.
 A democratic-consultative leader seeks input and hears the
concerns and issues of employees but makes the final decision him or
herself.
 A democratic-participative leader often allows employees to have a
say in what’s decided.
Identifiable Leadership Behaviors
(cont’d)
 Laissez-Faire Style of Leadership
 Gives employees complete freedom to make decisions and to
decide on work methods
 Conclusions about Leadership Styles
 The laissez-faire leadership style is ineffective.

 Quantity of work is equal under authoritarian and democratic

leadership styles.
 Quality of work and satisfaction is higher under democratic
leadership.
Continuum of Leader Behavior
The Ohio State Studies
 Studies that sought to identify independent dimensions of
leader behavior
 Initiating structure
 The extent to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the
roles of employees to attain goals
 Consideration
 The extent to which a leader has job relationships characterized by
mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings
The University Of Michigan Studies
 Studies that sought to identify the behavioral characteristics
of leaders related to performance effectiveness
 Employee oriented leader
 Emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs
of employees, and accepts individual differences.
 Production oriented leader
 Emphasizes technical or task aspects of a job, is concerned mainly with
accomplishing tasks, and regards group members as a means to
accomplishing goals.
The Managerial Grid
Contingency Theories Of Leadership
 The Fiedler Contingency Leadership Model
 Effective group performance depends on the proper match
between the leader’s style of interacting with employees and the
degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the
leader
 Uses Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire, to measure the
leader’s task or relationship orientation.
 Identified three situational criteria—leader member relations, task
structure, and position power—that could be manipulated match an
inflexible (fixed) leadership style.
The Findings of the Fiedler Model
Contingency Theories…(cont’d)
 Path-Goal Theory (House)
 It is a leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and
to provide the necessary direction and support
 A leader’s motivational behavior:
 Makes employee need satisfaction contingent on effective performance.
 Provides the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards necessary for
effective performance.
 Assumes that the leader’s style is flexible and can be changed to
adapt to the situation at hand.
Path-Goal Leadership Behaviors
 Directive leader
 Lets employees know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done,
and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.
 Supportive leader
 Is friendly and shows concern for the needs of employees.

 Participative leader
 Consults with employees and uses their suggestions before making a
decision.
 Achievement-oriented leader
 Sets challenging goals and expects employees to perform at their highest
levels.
Path-Goal Theory
Contingency Leadership Models
 Leader-Participation Model
(Vroom,Yetton and Jago)
 Provides a sequential set of rules for determining the form and
amount of participation a leader should exercise in decision
making according to different types of situations.
 The model is a decision tree incorporating seven contingencies (whose
relevance can be identified by making yes or no choices) and five
alternative leader ship styles.
 Assumes an adaptable leadership style.
Contingency Variables in
the Revised Leader-Participation Model

QR: Quality Requirement

CR: Commitment Requirement
LI: Leader Information
ST: Problem Structure
CP: Commitment Probability
GC: Goal Congruence
CO: Employee Conflict
SI: Employee Information
TC: Time Constraint
GD: Geographical Dispersion
MT: Motivation Time
MD: Motivation Development
Situational Leadership®
 Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
 Leaders should adjust their leadership styles—telling, selling,
participating, and delegating—in accordance with the readiness
of their followers.
 Acceptance: Leader effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the
followers who accept or reject the leader.
 Readiness: a follower’s ability and willingness to perform.

 At higher levels of readiness, leaders respond by reducing control over

and involvement with employees.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership® Model
Emerging Approaches To Leadership
 Charismatic Leadership Theory
 Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.
 People working for charismatic leaders are motivated to exert extra work
effort and, because they like and respect their leaders, express greater
satisfaction.

 Charisma leadership appears to be most appropriate when the

followers’ task has a ideological component or when the
environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty.
Charismatic Leadership
 A charismatic leader influences followers by:
 Stating a vision that provides a sense of community by linking
the present with a better future.
 Communicating high expectations and expressing confidence
that followers can attain them.
 Conveying, through words and actions, a new set of values, and
by his or her behavior setting an example for followers to
imitate.
 Making self-sacrifices and engaging in unconventional behavior
to demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision.
Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

1. Self-confidence
2. Vision
3. Ability to articulate the vision
4. Strong convictions about the vision
5. Behavior that is out of the ordinary
6. Appearance as a change agent
7. Environmental sensitivity
Visionary Leadership
“A vision should create enthusiasm, bringing energy and commitment to
the organization.”
 The key properties of a vision are inspirational possibilities that
are value centered, realizable, and have superior imagery and
articulation.
 Visionary Leadership
 Is the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible,
attractive vision of the future that grows out of and improves
upon the present
The Communication Process
Communication Process Terms
 Encoding  Feedback
 The conversion of a message  A check on how successful the
into some symbolic form message has been transferred as
 Message intended.
 A purpose to be conveyed
 Channel
 The medium by which a message
travels
 Decoding
 A receiver’s translation of a
sender’s message
Written Versus Verbal Communications
 Written  Verbal
 Tangible  Less secure
 Verifiable  Known receipt
 More permanent  Quicker response
 More precise  Consumes less time
 More care taken with  Quicker feedback
the written word
 The Grapevine
“The grapevine motto: Good information passes
among people fairly rapidly—bad information,
even faster!”
Grapevine
 An unofficial channel of communication that
is neither authorized nor supported
by the organization.
 Nonverbal
 Body Language
Communications
 Nonverbal communication cues such as facial expressions,
gestures, and other body movements
 Verbal Intonation
 An emphasis given to word or phrases that conveys meaning
 Barriers to Effective Communication

Physical
Filtering/Organizational
Socio psychological or personal - Selective
perception, Emotions
Information overload
Semantics - Language
Mechanical
National Culture
Overcoming Barriers to Effective Communication

Use feedback
Simplify language
Listen actively
Constrain emotions
Watch nonverbal cues
Information Technology (IT)
 E-mail
 Is the instantaneous transmission of messages on computers that
are linked together.
 Instant Messaging (IM)
 Is interactive, real-time communication among users logged on
the computer network at the same time.
 Voice Mail
 A system that digitizes a spoken message, transmits it over the
network, and stores the message for the receiver to retrieve
later.
Information Technology (cont’d)
 Fax
 Allows for the transmission of documents containing both text
and graphics over telephone lines.
 Electronic Data Interchange EDI
 An exchange of documents with vendors, suppliers, and
customers using direct, computer-to-computer networks.
 Teleconferencing
 Allows groups to confer simultaneously using telephone or e-
mail group communications software.
Information Technology (cont’d)
 Teleconferencing
 Allows groups to confer simultaneously using telephone or e-
mail group communications software.
 Videoconferencing
 Is a simultaneous conference during which meeting participants
in different locations can see each other over video screens.
Information Technology (cont’d)
 Intranets
 An organizational communication network that uses Internet
technology but is accessible only to organizational employees.
 Extranets
 An organizational communication network that uses Internet
technology and allows authorized users inside the organization
to communicate with certain outsiders such as customers or
vendors.
Information Technology (cont’d)
 Wireless Communications
 Allow users to send and receive information from anywhere as
signals sent without a direct physical connection to a hard-wired
network system.
 Knowledge Management
 Includes cultivating a learning culture in which employees
systematically gather knowledge and share it through computer-
based networks and community of interest teams.
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
a) Formal Communication
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal
b) Informal or grapevine communication
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
 describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and
values (personal and cultural values) of an organization

ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
 Tough-Guy Culture or Macho Culture
 Work Hard/Play Hard
 Bet Your Company Culture
(Slow feedback and reward, high risk)
 Process Culture
(Slow feedback and reward, low risk)
MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY
 Setting a good example
 Communicate in writing
 Training programs
 Recognize individual differences
 Actively seek input from minority groups
 Revamp reward systems
 Make room for social events
 Flexible work environment
 Don't assume similar values and opinions
 Continuous monitoring