INTRODUCTION

 Course Name
MENG 210 - Manufacturing Processes I

 Prerequisite
MENG 110 – Workshop Technology
MENG 201 – Materials Science

 Text Book
Principles of Modern Manufacturing , SI Version
By Mikell P. Groover
Fifth Edition, J. Wiley, 2013

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 INTRODUCTION

 Course Objectives
Student should be able to
1. Understand the methods of production of iron, steel and
aluminum
2. Understand the common types of casting processes, their
advantages and limitations
3. Understand the basic principles to analyze the common
bulk deformation and sheet-metal working processes
4. Understand the common types of welding processes, their
characteristics, and applications
5. Understand the basic principles of polymer processing
6. Demonstrate the ability to safely handle equipment related
to forming, casting, and welding processes

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 COURSE ASSESSMENT

 Marking Scheme
Quizzes (2 quizzes – Weeks 5 & 11) 10%
Lab works 10%
Test I (Mon 25/3/2019) 20%
Test II (Mon 13/5/2019) 20%
Final Exam 40%

 Class attendance
First warning - Fail to attend 15% of classes and labs
Second warning (WF) - Fail to attend 25% of classes and
labs

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 Manufacturing

 What is Manufacturing
It is the transformation of materials into items of
greater value by means of one or more processing.

 What type of processing

Three categories of processing operations are
distinguished:

1. Shaping operations – alter the geometry of the

starting work material by various methods
(casting, forging and machining)

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 Manufacturing

2. Property-enhancing operations – add value to the

material by improving its physical properties
without changing its shape (heat treatment)
3. Surface processing operations – performed to
clean, treat, coat (plating or painting), or deposit
material onto the exterior surface of the work

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 Lecture breakdown – Iron production

• Types of engineering materials

• Metals
• Importance of metals
• Forms of Metals
• Classification of metals
• Commercial types of iron
• Iron and steel production
• Raw materials in iron-making
• Blast furnace
• Pig iron

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 Four Types of Engineering Materials

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
• Their chemistries are different
• Their mechanical and mechanical properties are
dissimilar
Metals
Metal-polymer composites
Metal-ceramic composites
Ceramic-polymer composites
Ceramics Polymers

4. Composites
• Non-homogeneous mixtures of the other three
basic types

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 Metals

• The Most Important Engineering Materials

• They have properties that satisfy a wide variety of
design requirements
• They characterized by properties of ductility,
malleability, luster, and high electrical and thermal
conductivity

• Metal category include both metallic elements and

their alloys (which are composed of two or more
elements, with at least one being metallic element)

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 Why Metals are Important – 1/2

• High stiffness and strength - can be alloyed for

high rigidity, strength, and hardness
• Thus, they are used to provide the structural
framework for most engineered products

• Toughness - capacity to absorb energy better than

other classes of materials

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 Why Metals are Important – 2/2

 Good electrical conductivity - Metals are

conductors
• Because of their metallic bonding that permits the
free movement of electrons as charge carriers

 Good thermal conductivity - conduct heat better

than ceramics or polymers

 Cost – the price of steel is very competitive with

other engineering materials

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 Starting Forms of Metals

Metals converted into parts and products using a

variety of manufacturing processes

• Cast metal – initial form is a casting

• Wrought metal – the metal has been worked or

can be worked (e.g., rolled,…) after casting which
gives better mechanical properties

• Powdered metal – starting form is very small

powders for conversion into parts using powder
metallurgy techniques

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 Classification of Metals

Metals are classified into:

• Ferrous - those based on iron
• Steels (alloy of iron with carbon 0.02% - 2.11% and
other)
• Cast irons (alloy of iron and 2.1% - 4% or 5% carbon
used in casting – primarily sand casting)
• Steels and cast irons can also contain other alloying
elements besides carbon
• Nonferrous - all other metals
• Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium,
zinc, lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver,
platinum, and others

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 Iron as a Commercial Product

• Electrolytic iron - the most pure, at about 99.99%,

for research and other purposes where the pure
metal is required

• Ingot iron - contains about 0.1% impurities

(including about 0.01% carbon), used in
applications where high ductility or corrosion
resistance are needed

• Wrought iron - contains about 3% slag but very

little carbon, and is easily shaped in hot forming
operations such as forging

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 Iron and Steel Production

• Iron making - iron is reduced from its ores

• Steel making – iron is then refined to obtain

desired purity and composition (alloying)

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 Iron Ores Required in Iron-making

• The principal ore used in the production of iron and

steel is hematite (Fe2O3)

• Other iron ores include magnetite (Fe3O4), siderite

(FeCO3), and limonite (Fe2O3-xH2O, where x is
typically around 1.5)

• Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron,

depending on grade (hematite is almost 70% iron)

• Scrap iron and steel are also widely used today as

raw materials in iron- and steel-making

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 Other Raw Materials in Iron-Making

• Coke (C) – high carbon fuel

• Functions: supplies heat for chemical reactions and
produces carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce iron ore

• Limestone (CaCO3) – a rock containing high

proportion of calcium carbonate
• Used as a flux to react with and remove impurities in
molten iron as slag

• Hot gases (CO, H2, CO2, H2O, N2, O2, and fuels)
• Used to burn coke but after passing through a
special treatment.

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 Iron-making in a Blast Furnace

Blast furnace - a refractory-lined chamber with a

diameter of about 9 to 11 m at its widest and a
height of 40 m

• To produce iron, a charge of ore, coke, and

limestone are dropped into the top of a blast
furnace

• Hot gases are forced into the lower part of the

chamber at high rates to accomplish combustion
and reduction of the iron

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 Cross-section of iron-
making blast furnace
showing major
components

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 Proportions of Raw Materials in Iron-Making

• Approximately seven tons of raw materials are

required to produce one ton of iron:
– 2.0 tons of iron ore
– 1.0 ton of coke
– 0.5 ton of limestone
– 3.5 tons of gases
• A significant proportion of the byproducts are
recycled

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 Iron-Making

 Iron tapped from the blast furnace into a

channel and indentations in a bed of sand.
Once it cools, this metal is known as pig iron.

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 Iron from the Blast Furnace

• Pig iron contains over 4% C, plus other impurities:

0.3-1.3% Si, 0.5-2.0% Mn, 0.1-1.0% P, and
0.02-0.08% S

• Further refinement is required for cast iron and

steel
– A furnace called a cupola is commonly used for
converting pig iron into gray cast iron
– For steel, compositions must be more closely
controlled and impurities brought to much lower
levels

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 Breakdown – Steel production

• Steel making
• Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
• Electric Arc Furnace
• Casting Processes in Steel-making
• Casting of Ingots
• Continuous Casting

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 Steel-Making

• Since the mid-1800s, a number of processes have

been developed for refining pig iron into steel

• Today, the two most important processes are

– Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)

– Electric furnace

• Both are used to produce carbon and alloy steels

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 Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

• Accounts for  70% of steel production

• Adaptation of the Bessemer converter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process

– Bessemer process used air blown up through the

molten pig iron to burn off impurities
– BOF uses pure oxygen

• Typical BOF vessel is  5 m inside diameter and

can process 150 to 200 tons per heat
– Cycle time (tap-to-tap time) takes  45 min

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 Basic Oxygen Furnace

Basic oxygen furnace showing BOF vessel during

processing of a heat

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 BOF sequence :

charging of scrap and pig iron blowing

tapping the molten steel pouring off the slag

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Note 1 - 28 UOB, Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr Osama Al-Jamal, ©2019 Iron production
 Electric Arc Furnace

• Accounts for  30% of steel production

• Scrap iron and scrap steel are primary raw
materials
• Capacities commonly range between 25 and 100
tons per heat
• Complete melting requires about 2 hr; tap-to-tap
time is 4 hr
• Usually associated with production of alloy steels,
tool steels, and stainless steels
• Noted for better quality steel but higher cost per
ton, compared to BOF

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 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking.

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 Casting Processes in Steel-making

• Steels produced by BOF or electric furnace are

solidified for subsequent processing either as cast
ingots or by continuous casting
– Casting of ingots – a discrete production process

– Continuous casting – a semi-continuous process

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 Casting of Ingots

Steel ingots = discrete castings weighing from less

than one ton up to  300 tons (entire
heat)

• Molds made of high carbon iron, tapered at top or

bottom for removal of solid casting

• The mold is placed on a platform called a stool

– After solidification the mold is lifted, leaving the
casting on the stool

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 Ingot Mold

A big-end-down ingot mold typical of type used in

steelmaking

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 Casting of Ingots – Drawbacks

 The time required for solidification is significant

 The associated shrinkage is also significant

 Porosity caused by reaction of C and O2 to form

CO during cooling and solidification
 Gases liberated from the molten steel are due to
their reduced solubility with decreasing temperature
 This can be treated by adding elements such as Si
and Al

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 Continuous Casting

• Continuous casting (or strand casting) is widely

applied in aluminum and copper production, but its
most noteworthy application is steel-making

• Dramatic productivity increases over ingot casting,

which is a discrete process

• For ingot casting, 10-12 hr may be required for

casting to solidify
– Continuous casting reduces solidification time by an
order of magnitude

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 Continuous casting. Steel is
poured into tundish and
flows into a water-cooled
continuous mold;

it solidifies as it travels
down in mold. Slab
thickness is exaggerated for
clarity.

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 Breakdown – Type of Steels

• Steel and steel alloys

• Plain carbon steels
• AISI-SAE designation scheme (plain carbon)
• Low alloy steels
• Effect of principal alloying ingredients in steel
• AISI-SAE designation scheme (low alloy)
• Stainless steel
• Types of stainless steel
• Designation Scheme for Stainless Steels

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 Steel (Section 6.2.3)

• An alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11%

carbon by weight
• Often includes other alloying elements: nickel,
manganese, chromium, and molybdenum
• Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:
1. Plain carbon steels
2. Low alloy steels
3. Stainless steels
4. Tool steels

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 Plain Carbon Steels

• Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only

small amounts of other elements (about 0.5%
manganese is normal)

• Strength and hardness of plain carbon steels

increases with carbon content, but ductility is
reduced

• High carbon steels can be heat treated to form

martensite, making the steel very hard and strong

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 Tensile strength and hardness as a function
of carbon content in plain carbon steel (hot
rolled)

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 Plain Carbon Steels

1. Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C

– Applications: automobile sheetmetal parts, plate
steel for fabrication, railroad rails
– Easy to form

2. Medium carbon steels - range between 0.20%

and 0.50% C
– Applications: machinery components and engine
parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods

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 Plain Carbon Steels

3. High carbon steels - contain carbon in amounts

greater than 0.50%
 Higher strength
 Applications: springs, cutting tools and blades,
wear-resistant parts

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 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme

 Specified by a 4-digit number system: 10XX, where

10 indicates plain carbon steel, and XX indicates
carbon % in hundredths of percentage points

 For example, 1020 steel contains 0.20% C

 Developed by American Iron and Steel Institute

(AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
so designation often expressed as AISI 1020 or
SAE 1020

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 Low Alloy Steels

• Iron-carbon alloys that contain additional alloying

elements in amounts totaling less than  5% by
weight
• Mechanical properties (achieved by heat
treatment) superior to plain carbon steels for given
applications
• Higher strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear
resistance, toughness, and more desirable
combinations of these properties
• It is not easily welded, especially at medium and
high carbon levels

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 Effect of Principal Alloying Ingredients

 Chromium (Cr) – improves strength, hardness,

wear resistance, and hot hardness
 Manganese (Mn) – improves strength and
hardness
 Molybdenum (Mo) – increases toughness and hot
hardness
 Nickel (Ni) – improves strength, hardness and
corrosion resistance
 Vanadium (V) – inhibits grain growth during
elevated temperature processing

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 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme

• AISI-SAE designation uses a 4-digit number

system: YYXX, where YY indicates alloying
elements, and XX indicates carbon % in
hundredths of % points (see Table 6.2)
• Examples:
13XX - Manganese steel
20XX - Nickel steel
31XX - Nickel-chrome steel
40XX - Molybdenum steel
41XX - Chrome-molybdenum steel

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 Stainless Steel (SS)

• Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion

resistance
• Principal alloying element is chromium (Cr),
usually >15%
– Cr forms a thin impervious oxide film that protects
surface from corrosion
• Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain
SS to increase corrosion protection
• Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but
high C content reduces corrosion protection since
chromium carbide forms to reduce available free
Cr

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 Properties of Stainless Steels

• In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless steels

are noted for their combination of strength and
ductility
– While desirable in many applications, these
properties generally make stainless steel difficult to
work in manufacturing

• Significantly more expensive than plain C or low

alloy steels

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 Types of Stainless Steel

• Classified according to the predominant phase

present at ambient temperature:
1. Austenitic stainless (18-8 stainless) - typical
composition 18% Cr and 8% Ni – most corrosion
resistant
• Nonmagnetic and very ductile
• Significant work hardness
• Stable at room temperature
• Used to fabricate chemical and food processing
equipment

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 Types of Stainless Steel

2. Ferritic stainless - about 15% to 20% Cr, low C,

and no Ni
• Magnetic
• Less ductile and corrosion resistant the austenite
• Applications: from kitchen utensils to jet engine
components

3. Martensitic stainless - as much as 18% Cr but no

Ni, higher C content than ferritic stainless
• Strong, hard and fatigue resistant
• Typical products include cutlery and surgical
instruments

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 Designation Scheme for Stainless Steels

• Three-digit AISI numbering scheme

• First digit indicates general type, and last two digits
give specific grade within type
– Examples (Table 6.4):
Type 302 – Austenitic SS
18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2% Mn, 0.15% C
Type 430 – Ferritic SS
17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.12% C
Type 440 – Martensitic SS
17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.65% C

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 Additional Stainless Steels

• Several additional high alloy steels have been

developed and are also classified as stainless
steels:
4. Precipitation hardening stainless - 17% Cr and 7%
Ni, with additional small amounts of alloying
elements such as Al, Cu, Ti, and Mo
• Suitable for aerospace applications – strength and
corrosion resistance are maintained at elevated
temperature

5. Duplex stainless - mixture of austenite and ferrite in

roughly equal amounts
• Heat exchangers, pumps, treatment plants

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 Breakdown – Steels and Cast Irons

• Tool steels
• AISI classification of tools steels
• Cast irons
• Types of cast irons

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 Tool Steels

• A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed

for use as industrial cutting tools, dies, and molds
• To perform in these applications, they must possess
high strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness under impact
• Tool steels are heat treated
• Divide into major types according to application and
composition
• AISI classification scheme - includes a prefix letter
to identify the tool steel

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 AISI Classification of Tools Steels

T, M High-speed tool steels - cutting tools in machining,

formulated for high wear resistance and hot
hardness - Principal alloying elements - T: tungsten
M: Molybdenum
H Hot-working tool steels - hot-working dies for
forging, extrusion, and die-casting
D Cold-work tool steels - cold working dies for
sheetmetal pressworking, cold extrusion, and
forging - D: designate for Die
W Water-hardening tool steels - high carbon but little
or no other elements - hardened by fast quenching
in water - Low cost but limited to low temperature
applications

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 AISI Classification of Tools Steels

S Shock-resistant tool steels - tools needing high

toughness, as in sheetmetal shearing, punching
and bending operations
P Mold steels - molds for molding plastics and rubber
L Low-alloy tool steels - reserved for special
applications

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 Cast Irons

• Iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4%

carbon and from 1% to 3% silicon
• This composition makes them highly suitable as
casting metals
• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that
of all other cast metal parts combined, excluding
cast ingots in steel-making that are subsequently
rolled into bars, plates, and similar stock
• Overall tonnage of cast iron is second only to steel
among metals

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 Types of Cast Irons

• Most important is gray cast iron

• Other types include ductile iron, white cast iron,
malleable iron, and various alloy cast irons
• Ductile and malleable irons possess chemistries
similar to the gray and white cast irons,
respectively, but result from special processing
treatments

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 Cast Iron Chemistries

Carbon and silicon %

for cast irons,
compared to steels
(most steels have
relatively low Si
% - cast steels have
higher Si %).

Ductile iron is formed

by special melting and
pouring treatment of
gray cast iron.

Malleable iron is formed

by heat treatment of
white cast iron.

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 Types of Cast Irons

 Gray cast iron

• Largest tonnage among the cast irons
• Compositions – 2.5 ~ 4% C and 1 ~ 3% Si
• Good vibration damping (desirable in engines and
other machinery)
• Properties controlled by heat treatment
• Very low ductility – brittle material
• Products – automotive engine blocks and heads,
motor housing, and machine tool bases

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 Types of Cast Irons

 Ductile iron
• Composition of grey iron – chemically treated
molten metal before pouring
• Stronger and more ductile iron
• Applications – machinery components that require
high strength and good wear resistance
 White cast iron
• Less C and Si than Grey cast iron
• Hard and brittle with excellent wear resistance
• Good strength
• Applications – railway brake shoes

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 Types of Cast Irons

 Malleable iron
• Formed by heat treating white cast irons (to
separate C out of solution)
• Substantial ductility (up to 20% elongation)
• Applications – metal pipe fittings and flanges, and
certain machinery components
 Alloy cast iron
• For special properties and applications
• Heat-treatable types
• Corrosion-resistance types
• Heat-resistance types

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