 Ground-wave propagation

 Sky-wave propagation
 Line-of-sight propagation
 Follows contour of the earth
 Can Propagate considerable distances
 Frequencies up to 2 MHz
 Example
AM radio
 Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down
to earth
 Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth’s surface
 Reflection effect caused by refraction
 Examples
◦ Amateur radio
◦ CB radio
 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of
sight
◦ Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by
ionosphere
◦ Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site due to
refraction
 Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
◦ Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the
medium
◦ When wave changes medium, speed changes
◦ Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
 1st generation cellular networks are purely
analog cellular systems.
 The transmission of data is sent via a
continuously variable signal
 2nd generation cellular networks refer to dtal
cellular and PC wireless systems.
 They consist of digital traffic channels,
perform encryption, error detection &
correction
 Users share channels dynamically
 3rd generation refers to the next generation
of wireless systems.
 This is digital with high speed data transfer
 It is voice quality comparable with a switched
telephone network.
 Data transmission rates can be asymmetric or
symmetrical
 It provides support for circuit switched and
packet switched data services
 Three basic devices
 A mobile station
 A base transceiver
 A Mobile Telecommunications Switching Office
(MTSO)
 Base Station (BS)
◦ includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of receivers

 Mobile Telecommunications Switching Office (MTSO)

◦ connects calls between mobile units

Two types of channels available between mobile unit and

BS
• Control channels
• used to exchange information having to do with setting up and
maintaining calls (out-band or in-band through stealing bits)

• Traffic channels
• carry voice or data connection between users
Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) refers to
a cellular network that has land and radio
based sections.

This network consists of:

• Mobile station (MS): A device used for
communication over the network.
• Base station transceiver (BST): A
transmitter/receiver used to transmit/receive
signals over the network.
Mobile switching center (MSC): Sets up and
maintains calls made over the network.

Base station controller (BSC): Communication

between a group of BSTs and a single MSC is
controlled by the BSC

Public switched telephone network (PSTN):

Section of the network that is land based
 Outgoing from mobile
◦ input phone number and press send
◦ mobile links to base transceiver via control channel
◦ base to MTSO to PSTN
◦ MTSO routes connection back to mobile via voice
channel
◦ mobile shifts from control to voice
 Incoming to mobile
◦ call goes from PSTN to MTSO
◦ on control channel, MTSO searches for mobile by
PAGING every active mobile
◦ If found, MTSO rings it and establishes voice
channel connection
◦ uses transceiver with strongest signal from mobile
 Network protocols must refresh and renew
paths as a mobile station host moves
between cells.
 Handoffs are the function of one cell handing
over the communication link between itself
and a mobile station as the mobile station
moves out of the boundary of its region into
the boundary of an adjacent cell.
 Partition the region into smaller regions
called cells.
 Each cell gets at least one base station or
tower
 Users within a cell talks to the tower
 How can we divide the region into cells?
 Typical Cell sizes
◦ some cites few hundred meters
◦ country side few tens of kilometers
 Advantages of cell structures:
◦ more capacity due to frequency reusage
◦ less transmission power needed
◦ more robust, tolerate failures
◦ deals interference, transmission area locally
 Problems:
◦ fixed network needed for the base stations
◦ handover (changing from one cell to another)
necessary
◦ interference with other cells
 Cell structure can reuse frequency only
when certain distance is maintained
between cells that use the same channels.
 Fixed frequency assignment:
◦ certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
◦ problem: different traffic load in different cells
 Dynamic frequency assignment:
◦ base station chooses frequencies depending on
the frequencies already used in neighbor cells
◦ more capacity in cells with more traffic
◦ assignment can also be based on interference
measurements
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 Cell is geographical covering area to connect
the cellular devices with the range. There are
five types of cells.
 Macro cells
 Micro Cells
 Pico cells
 Selective Cells
 Umbrella cells
 Covering area is 3 to 35km
 Within 3km it generates high power and
mostly used in cities.
 Within 35km it generates low power and
mostly used in ruler areas.
 Covering area is 0.1 to 1km
 Can be deploy at the top of building or
airport or at any Mall.
 Its uses where number of papollation
 Covering area is 0.01 to 0.1km
 Its very powerfull.
 Can handle more population for a example
office.
 It uses selective area by using angles like 180
degree or 60 degree.

Umbrella Cell

• This cell is used to handle the lots of handovers.

• This is for who is traveling from one side to
another may be city to another city.
 As users increases channel capacity
decreases.

 Techniques are needed to provide extra

channels.

 Cell splitting and sectoring increases capacity

 The Processes of subdividing a congested cell
into smaller cell.
 Each cell with its own base station and a
corresponding reduction in antenna height.
 Leads to increase in capacity.
 Hands-off are more frequent.
 Channel assignment become more difficult.
 All cells are not split simultaneously so
special care have to be taken for proper
allocation.
 Cell Sectoring. It basically involves replacing
an omni directional antenna at the base
station by several directional antennas.
 Cell sectoring is done mainly to reduce
factors such as co-channel interference
 Adding new channels
 Frequency borrowing – frequencies are taken
from adjacent cells by congested cells
 Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage
can be split into smaller cells
 Cell sectoring – cells are divided into a
number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with
their own set of channels
 Microcells – antennas move to buildings, hills,
and lamp posts
 Base Station (BS) – includes an antenna, a
controller, and a number of receivers
 Mobile telecommunications switching office
(MTSO) – connects calls between mobile units
 Two types of channels available between
mobile unit and BS
 Control channels – used to exchange information having
to do with setting up and maintaining calls
 Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection
between users
 Mobile unit initialization.
 Mobile-originated call.
 Paging.
 Call accepted.
 Ongoing call.
 Handoff.
 Call blocking
 Call termination
 Call drop
 Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile
subscriber