IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

• Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in

which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people
about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling
information in social interaction.
• It was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman
• SELF PRESENTATION
• SOCIAL INTERACTION
SELF PRESENTATION
• Self-presentation is conveying information about oneself – or an
image of oneself – to others.
There are two types and motivations of self-presentation:
• presentation meant to match one's own self-image, and
• presentation meant to match audience expectations and preferences
SELF PRESENTATION
• Boasting
• Flattery
• Intimidation
SOCIAL INTERACTION

• By enacting a line effectively, the person gains positive social value,

which is also called "face".
• The success of a social interaction will depend on whether the
performer has the ability to maintain face.
• As a result, a person is required to display a kind of character by
becoming "someone who can be relied upon to maintain himself as
an interactant, poised for communication, and to act so that others
do not endanger themselves by presenting themselves as
interactants to him.
 Defense Mechanisms
• Defense mechanisms refer to unconscious mental
processes that protect the conscious person from
developing anxiety
• Denial: person refuses to recognize reality: Results
• Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable
impulses to create socially acceptable
accomplishments:MPSTME
• Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable
impulses to others :Nexus/ deserve
• Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the
unconscious: Temporary Amnesia
 Defense Mechanisms

• Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons: Time

saving/ practical
• Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful
experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideas: Focus
• Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges,
thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite state
• Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original
object of impulse
ATTITUDE

• Attitude is defined as “a learned predisposition to

respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner
with respect to a given object.”
Characteristic features of Attitude
Attitude can be characterized in Different ways(BEM)

• Related to feelings & beliefs of people

• Has impact on one’s behavior positively or negatively
• Affect perception
• Learned through experiences
• May be unconsciously held
Attitude

Action
NATURE OF ATTITUDE
• ASPECTS OF VALENCE-the degree of favourableness or
unfavourableness toward the event
• RELATION TO NEED ASPECT-vary in relation to needs they serve
• CENTRALITY ASPECT-importance of attitude object to someone
• ASPECTS OF MULTIPLEXITY-number of element constituting the
attitude
ATTITUDE
• The components of attitudes:
• Affective : feeling
• Cognitive: evaluation
• Behavior: action
Attitudes and Behavior
• Factors that moderate the attitude-behavior link:
• Strength of attitude
• Specificity of attitude
• Self-focus
• Self-monitoring
Functions Of Attitude
Adjustment Ego
Defensive

Attitude

Knowledge Value
expression
Functions Of Attitude
• The Adjustment Function : Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work
environment.
• Ego-Defensive Function : Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self-
image.
• The Value-Expressive Function : Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for
expressing their values.
• The Knowledge Function : Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference
that allow people to understand and perceive the world around him.
Formation Of Attitude
Communication Experience with Classical
Object
-media Conditioning

Economic Attitude Operant

Status Conditioning

Vicarious
Neighbourhood Family and
Peer Groups Learning
Formation Of Attitude

• Experience with Object : Attitude can develop from a personally rewarding or

punishing experience with a object.
• Classical Conditioning :It involves involuntary responses and is acquired through
the pairing of two stimuli.
• Operant Conditioning : It is based on the “Law of Effect” and involves voluntary
responses ,Behaviors.
• Vicarious Learning : Formation of attitude by observing behaviour of others and
consequences of that behaviour.
Continued….

• Family and Peer Groups : A person may learn attitudes through imitation of
parents.
❖ Neighbourhood : Involves being told what attitudes to have by parents, schools,
community organizations, religious doctrine, friends, etc.
❖ Economic Status : Our Economical and occupational positions also contribute to
attitude formation.
• Mass Communication : Television,Radio,Newspaper and magazine feed their
audiences large quantities of information.
Cognitive Dissonance
• A state of psychological tension that is aroused when a person
simultaneously holds two thoughts that contradict one another.
 Theory of Cognitive
Dissonance
Inconsistency between thoughts

Experience cognitive dissonance

Attempt to reduce dissonance

Change attitude
Three Dissonance-Arousing Conditions
• 1. Attitude-behavior inconsistency
• Leads to change in attitude
• 2. Exerting wasted effort
• Leads to effort justification
• 3. Making a difficult decision
• Leads to post-decisional dissonance
Two Perspectives on Self-Persuasion
• 1. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) – inconsistency between
thoughts leads to unpleasant tension (dissonance), which motivates
people to reduce dissonance by changing thoughts.
Two Perspectives on Self-Persuasion
• 2. Self-Perception Theory (Bem) – people form and modify their
attitudes by observing their own behavior.
Implications
• Behavior 🡪 Attitude change
• Use of cognitive dissonance to promote healthy behavior.
Applications
• Job satisfaction
• Job involvement
• Employee commitment
• Psychological empowerment
• OCB
• Work place deviance
HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS
DISSATISFACTION

DESTRUCTIVE TO CONSTRUCTIVE

EXIT VOICE
PASSIVE TO ACTIVE

NEGLECT LOYALTY
DECISION MAKING
DR. Chaitanya Dasika
Decision making
• “Decision making is a reasoning or emotional process which can be
rational or irrational, can be based on explicit assumptions or tacit
assumptions.”
EVERY DAY TECHNIQUES
• Pros and Cons: Listing the advantages and disadvantages of each option,
popularized by Plato and Benjamin Franklin
• Simple Prioritization: Choosing the alternative with the highest probability-
weighted utility for each alternative
• Satisficing: using the first acceptable option
• Delphi: person in authority or an "expert", just following orders
• Flipism: Flipping a coin, cutting a deck of playing cards, and other random or
coincidence methods
• Prayer, tarot cards, astrology, augurs, revelation, or other forms of divination
 PROBABLE PROBLEMS
• Analyze performance, what should the results be
against what they actually are

• Problems are merely deviations from performance

standards

• Problem may not be precisely identified and

described

• Problems are caused by some change from a

distinctive feature
 Decision Making

• •Decision Making

• Objectives must first be established

• Objectives must be classified and placed in order of

importance

• Alternative actions must be developed

• The alternative that is able to achieve all the

objectives is the tentative decision
STAGES
• Developed by B. Aubrey Fisher,

• Orientation stage- This phase is where member for the first time and start to
understand .

• Conflict stage- dissonance. member eventually work it out.

• Emergence stage- The person begins to clear up vague opinions by talking about
them.

• Reinforcement stage- Members finally make a decision, while justifying

themselves that it was the right decision.
STAGES
• These steps are put into seven effective ways to go about this decision
making process (McMahon 2007).

• The first step - Outline your goal and outcome. This will enable decision
makers to see exactly what they are trying to accomplish and keep them on
a specific path.

• The second step - Gather data. This will help decision makers have actual
evidence to help them come up with a solution.

• The third step - Brainstorm to develop alternatives. Coming up with more

than one solution enables you to see which one can actually work.
STAGES
• The fourth step - List pros and cons of each alternative. With the list of pros
and cons, you can eliminate the solutions that have more cons than pros,
making your decision easier.

• The fifth step - Make the decision. Once you analyze each solution, you
should pick the one that has many pros (or the pros that are most
significant), and is a solution that everyone can agree with.

• The sixth step - Immediately take action. Once the decision is picked, you
should implement it right away.

• The seventh step - Learn from, and reflect on the decision making. This step
allows you to see what you did right and wrong when coming up, and
putting the decision to use.
COGNITIVE AND PERSONAL BIASES
• Selective search for evidence (a.k.a. Confirmation bias in psychology) (Scott Plous, 1993) willingness to gather
facts that support certain conclusions but disregard other facts that support different conclusions.

• Premature termination of search for evidence – We tend to accept the first alternative that looks like it might
work.

• Inertia – Unwillingness to change thought patterns that we have used in the past in the face of new
circumstances.

• Selective perception – We actively screen-out information that we do not think is important.

• Wishful thinking or optimism bias – We tend to want to see things in a positive light and this can distort our
perception and thinking.
COGNITIVE AND PERSONAL BIASES
• Choice-supportive bias occurs when we distort our memories of chosen and
rejected options to make the chosen options seem more attractive.

• Recency – We tend to place more attention on more recent information

and either ignore or forget more distant information. The opposite effect in
the first set of data or other information is termed Primacy effect (Plous,
1993).

• Repetition bias – A willingness to believe what we have been told most

often and by the greatest number of different sources.

• Anchoring and adjustment – Decisions are unduly influenced by initial

information that shapes our view of subsequent information.
• Group think – Peer pressure to conform to the opinions held by the group.
COGNITIVE AND PERSONAL BIASES
• Source credibility bias – We reject something if we have a bias against the
person, organization, or group to which the person belongs: We are inclined
to accept a statement by someone we like.

• Incremental decision making and escalating commitment – We look at a

decision as a small step in a process and this tends to perpetuate a series of
similar decisions.

• Role fulfillment (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) – We conform to the decision

making expectations that others have of someone in our position.

• Illusion of control – We tend to underestimate future uncertainty because

we tend to believe we have more control over events than we really do. We
believe we have control to minimize potential problems in our decisions
Herbert Simon- bounded rationality"
• Optimizing vs. satisficing
• Herbert Simon coined the phrase "bounded rationality" to express the idea
that human decision-making is limited by available information, available
time, and the information-processing ability of the mind.

• Simon also defined two cognitive styles: maximizers try to make an optimal
decision,

• whereas satisficers simply try to find a solution that is "good enough".

• Maximizers tend to take longer making decisions due to the need to
maximize performance across all variables and make tradeoffs carefully;
they also tend to more often regret their decisions
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
• The decision-making process involves the following steps:
• Define the problem.
• Identify limiting factors.
• Develop potential alternatives.
• Analyze the alternatives.
• Select the best alternative.
• Implement the decision.
• Establish a control and evaluation system.
• The most obviously troubling situations found in an organization
can usually be identified as symptoms of underlying problems.
EVALUATION
• Was the original problem identified incorrectly? If so, the decision-making
process needs to begin again, starting with a revised identification step.
• Was the wrong alternative selected? If so, one of the other alternatives
generated in the decision-making process may be a wiser choice.
• Was the correct alternative selected, but implemented improperly? If so,
a manager should focus attention solely on the implementation step to
ensure that the chosen alternative is implemented successfully.

• Has the implemented alternative been given enough time to be

successful? If not, a manager should give the process more time and re-
evaluate at a later date.
BRAIN STORM
• Concentrate on the problem at hand. This rule keeps the discussion
very specific and avoids the group's tendency to address the events
leading up to the current problem.

• Entertain all ideas. In fact, the more ideas that come up, the better.

• Refrain from allowing members to evaluate others' ideas on the

spot. All judgments should be deferred until all thoughts are
presented, and the group concurs on the best ideas
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
• Identify the problem
• Choose the alternatives: programmed nor non programmed
• Develop alternate solutions
• Implement selected alternative
• Evaluation of decision
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
• Identify the problem
• Stakeholder framing
• Perceptual defense
• Mental models
• Decisive leadership
• Solution focused problem
• Divine discontent
DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
• Pugh’s matrix
• Decision trees
Implementing the selected model
judgmental heuristics
satisficing
Evaluating the decisions
• Questioning assumptions/not focusing on contradictions/
A Manager’s Decision-Making Styles Will
Influence the Way She Attacks Problems
Right-brain thinkers tend
Left-brain thinkers tend to value to value
technical/task issues people/social issues

ANALYTIC CONCEPTUAL
High Cognitive A problem solver who analyzes A socially oriented person
Complexity alternatives and innovates who sees the big picture

DIRECTIVE BEHAVIORAL
Low Cognitive A rapid decision maker who A person who needs
Complexity expects results and relies on rules affiliation and wants to help
others
 Influences on Decision-Making

Intuition - fast, positive Creativity - a process

force in decision influenced by
making utilized at a individual and
level below organizational factors
consciousness, involves that results in the
learned patterns of production of novel
information and useful ideas,
products, or both
Four Stages of Creative Process

• Preparation - experience/ opportunity to build

knowledge base
• Incubation - reflective, often unconscious thought
• Illumination - insight into problem
• Verification - thinking, sharing, testing the decision
 Influences on Creativity

• Individual examples • Organizational ex.

• Cognitive Processes
• Divergent Thinking
• Associational Abilities
• Personality Factors
• breadth of interests
• high energy
• self confidence
• Flexible organization
structure
• Participative decision-
making
• Quality, supportive
relationships with
supervisors
 Organizations Can Facilitate
Creative Decision-Making
• Reward creativity
• Allow employees to fail
• Make work more fun
• Provide creativity training
• Vary work groups (internal/external)
• Encourage creative stimuli (music, art, etc.)
 Individuals who are affected
Participative by decisions influence the
Decision Making making of those decisions

• Organizational Foundations
• Participative, supportive organizational culture
• Team-oriented work design
• Individual Prerequisites
• Capability to become psychologically involved in participative
activities
• Motivation to act autonomously
• Capacity to see the relevance of participation for one’s own
well-being
Two Brains, Two Cognitive Styles

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Verbal Nonverbal, visuospatial

Sequential, temporal, Simultaneous, spatial,
digital analogical
Logical, analytic Gestalt, synthetic
Rational Intuitive
Western thought Eastern thought

Ideal = “brain-lateralized” making use of

either or both sides, depending on situation
From Left Brain, Right Brain by Springer and Deutsch © 1989, 1985, 1981 by Sally Springer and Georg Deutsch.
Used with permission by W.H. Freeman and Company
Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
• The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an
organizational goal.

• Three key elements:

• Intensity – how hard a person tries
• Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
• Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

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Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for
contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.

1.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2.McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
3.Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
4.McClelland’s Theory of Needs

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1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions Self-Actualization
• Individuals cannot
Higher Order Esteem move to the next
Internal higher level until all
Social needs at the
current (lower)
Safety level are satisfied
Lower Order
• Must move in
External Physiological hierarchical order

See E X H I B I T 7-1

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2. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and
Theory Y (positive).
• Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
• The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

Theory X Theory Y

• Workers have little • Workers are self-directed

ambition • Enjoy work
• Dislike work • Accept responsibility
• Avoid responsibility
• No empirical evidence to support this theory.

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3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs
Hygiene
Motivators
Factors

Extrinsic and Company Intrinsic and

Growth
Policies
Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Salary Responsibility

Work
Achievement
Conditions

See E X H I B I T 7-2

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Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to
remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given,
then satisfaction can occur.

• Herzberg is limited by his methodology

• Participants had self-serving bias
• Reliability of raters questioned
• Bias or errors of observation
• No overall measure of satisfaction was used
• Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity
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4. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed
• Need for Power (nPow)
• The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
• People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
• Hard to measure

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Performance Predictions for High-nAch People

• People with a high need for achievement are likely to:

• Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very
low- or high-risk situations
• Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility,
feedback, and moderate risk
• Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good
general managers are NOT high on nAch
• Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
• Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
1. Self-Determination Theory
2. Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
• Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
1. Reinforcement Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Expectancy Theory

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1. Self-Determination Theory
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so
anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine
motivation.
• Major Implications for Work Rewards
• Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
• Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
• Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
• Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards
reduce it

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2. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
• Basic Premise:
• That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher
performance
• Difficult Goals:
• Focus and direct attention
• Energize the person to work harder
• Difficulty increases persistence
• Force people to be more effective and efficient
• Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
• Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
• Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
• Culture

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Implementation of Goal-Setting: Management by Objectives
• MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
• Goals must be:
• Tangible
• Verifiable
• Measurable
• Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,
more specific goals at each level of organization.
• Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
• Goal specificity
• Participative decision making
• Explicit time period
• Performance feedback

See E X H I B I T 7-3

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3. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
• Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
• Self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory
Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal
See E X H I B I T 7-4

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Increasing Self-Efficacy
• Enactive mastery
• Most important source of efficacy
• Gaining relevant experience with task or job
• “Practice makes perfect”
• Vicarious modeling
• Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
• Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself
• Verbal persuasion
• Motivation through verbal conviction
• Pygmalion and Galatea effects – self-fulfilling prophecies
psyched up
• Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
• Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

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4. Reinforcement Theory
• Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a behavioral approach
rather than a cognitive one.

• Behavior is environmentally caused

• Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
• Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
• Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
• Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole
cause

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5. Adams’ Equity Theory
• Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant
others.
• When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the
situation is considered fair
• When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
• Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

See E X H I B I T 7-5
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Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”

• There can be four referent comparisons:

• Self–Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same organization
• Self–Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different organization
• Other–Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
• Other–Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization

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Reactions to Inequity
• Employee behaviors to create equity:
• Change inputs (slack off)
• Change outcomes (increase output)
• Distort/change perceptions of self
• Distort/change perceptions of others
• Choose a different referent person
• Leave the field (quit the job)
• Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
• Paid by time:
• Overrewarded employees produce more
• Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
• Paid by quality:
• Overrewarded employees give higher quality
• Underrewarded employees make more of low quality

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Justice and Equity Theory
Procedural
Justice
• Fairness of
outcome process
Distributive Interactional
Justice Justice
• Fairness of • Being treated with
outcome dignity and respect

Organizational
Justice Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.
See E X H I B I T 7-6

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6. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the
performance success in getting reward in
success reward employee’s eyes

See E X H I B I T 7-7

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Integrating Contemporary Motivation
Theories
• Based on Expectancy Theory

See E X H I B I T 7-8
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 Global Implications
• Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Order of needs is not universal
• McClelland’s three needs theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and
performance concerns – not universal traits
• Adams’ equity theory
• A desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists
• Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
• There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s two-factor theory may be universal

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Summary and Managerial Implications
• Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg)
• Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
• Goal-Setting Theory
• While limited in scope, good predictor
• Reinforcement Theory
• Powerful predictor in many work areas
• Equity Theory
• Best known for research in organizational justice
• Expectancy Theory
• Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of the assumptions as
rational decision making

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Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education,

Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

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