PHYSIOLOGY OF CNS

Embryology of CNS
Protecting the Brain

• Hair, skin, cranium

• Venous sinus blood
• Meninges
• Drua mater
• Arachnoid
membrane
• Pia mater
• Cerebrospinal fluid
Figure 9-4b, c: ANATOMY SUMMARY: The Central Nervous System
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Blood Brain Barrier
• Extensive capillaries & sinuses
• Tight junctions: limit permeability
• Astrocyte foot processes: secrete paracrines
• Protects brain: hormones & circulating chemicals
• Many glucose transporters

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 9-6: The blood-brain barrier
Blood-Brain Barrier

Figure 9.4b
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
High Demand for Blood

• Depends on aerobic glycolysis

• Requires glucose and oxygen
• No glycogen stores
• Fatty acids not used for energy
• Ketones used during extreme conditions

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Glial Cells

• 90% of CNS composed of glia

• Five types of glial cells
• Astrocyte—numerous functions
• Ependymal cells—line cavities
• Microglia—phagocytes
• Oligodendrocytes—form myelin
• Schwann cells (located in PNS)—form myelin

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Glial Cells

Figure 9.1
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Astrocytes

• Development of neural connections

• Possibly modulate synaptic activity
• Remove neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft
• Communicate to neurons through chemical
messengers
• Maintain normal electrolyte composition of ISF in
CNS
• Protect neurons against toxic substances
and oxidative stress

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Microglia

• Protect CNS from foreign matter through

phagocytosis
• Bacteria
• Dead or injured cells
• Protect CNS from oxidative stress

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CNS: Physical Support

Figure 9.2a
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CNS: Physical Support

Figure 9.2b
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Meninges
1. Dura mater: 2 layers of fibrous connective tissue,
fused except for dural sinuses
 Periosteal layer attached to bone
 Meningeal layer - proper brain covering
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater

Note superior
sagittal sinus
 Dura mater - dural partitions
Subdivide cranial cavity & limit movement of brain

 Falx cerebri
 In longitudinal fissure; attaches to crista galli of ethmoid bone
 Falx cerebelli
 Runs vertically along vermis of cerebellum
 Tentorium cerebelli
 Sheet in transverse fissure between cerebrum & cerebellum
 Arachnoid mater
 Between dura and arachnoid: subdural space
 Dura and arachnoid cover brain loosely
 Deep to arachnoid is subarachnoid space
 Filled with CSF
 Lots of vessels run through (susceptible to tearing)
 Superiorly, forms arachnoid villi: CSF valves
 Allow draining into dural blood sinuses
 Pia mater
 Delicate, clings to brain following convolutions
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
CSF

 Made in choroid plexuses (roofs of ventricles)

 Filtration of plasma from capillaries through
ependymal cells (electrolytes, glucose)
 500 ml/d; total volume 100-160 ml (1/2 c)
 Cushions and nourishes brain
 Assayed in diagnosing meningitis, bleeds, MS
 Hydrocephalus: excessive accumulation
 CSF circulation: through ventricles, median and lateral apertures,
subarachnoid space, arachnoid villi, and into the blood of the superior sagittal
sinus

CSF:
-Made in choroid plexus
-Drained through arachnoid villus
Cerebrospinal Fluid

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 9-5: ANATOMY SUMMARY: Cerebrospinal Fluid
 11.5: Brain
• Functions of the brain:
• Interprets sensations
• Determines perception
• Stores memory
• Reasoning
• Makes decisions
• Coordinates muscular movements
• Regulates visceral activities
• Determines personality

21
• Major parts of the brain:
• Cerebrum
• Frontal lobes
• Parietal lobes
• Occipital lobes
• Temporal lobes
• Insula
• Diencephalon
• Cerebellum
• Brainstem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
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 Structure of the Cerebrum
• Corpus callosum
• Connects cerebral Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Central sulcus Parietal lobe

hemispheres (a commissure) Gyrus

• Gyri Sulcus

Frontal lobe
• Bumps or convolutions Lateral sulcus
Occipital lobe

• Sulci Temporal lobe Transverse

fissure
Cerebellar
• Grooves in gray matter (a)
hemisphere

• Central sulcus of Central sulcus

Parietal lobe

Rolando
• Fissures Central sulcus
Longitudinal
Occipital lobe
• Longitudinal: separates the fissure
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Insula

cerebral hemispheres Occipital lobe Retracted

temporal lobe

• Transverse: separates (b) (c)

cerebrum from cerebellum 23

• Lateral fissure of Sylvius
 Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Five (5) lobes bilaterally: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Frontal lobe Central sulcus

• Parietal lobe Parietal lobe

• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Insula aka ‘Island of Occipital lobe
Reil’ (functions in Frontal lobe
Insula
interoceptive awareness Retracted
& judging intensity of temporal lobe

pain, among other (c)

things)
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 Functions of the Cerebrum
• Interpreting impulses
• Initiating voluntary movements
• Storing information as memory
• Retrieving stored information
• Reasoning
• Seat of intelligence and personality

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 Functional Regions of the
Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral cortex
• Thin layer of gray matter that constitutes the outermost
portion of cerebrum
• Contains 75% of all neurons in the nervous system
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Central sulcus
Motor areas involved with the control
Sensory areas involved with
of voluntary muscles
cutaneous and other senses

Concentration, planning,
problem solving

Frontal eye field

Parietal lobe
Auditory area
Sensory speech area
Front lobe ( Wernicke’s area)

Occipital lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area) Combining
visual images,
visual recognition
Lateral sulcus
of objects
Visual area
Interpretation of auditory patterns
Cerebellum
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Temporal lobe Brainstem
Functions of the Cerebral Lobes

27
 Sensory Areas
(post-central sulcus)
• Cutaneous sensory area • Sensory area for taste
• Parietal lobe • Near base of the central sulcus
• Interprets sensations on • Sensory area for smell
skin • Arises from centers deep within
the cerebrum
• Visual area Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Central sulcus
• Occipital lobe Motor areas involved with the control
of voluntary muscles
Sensory areas involved with
cutaneous and other senses
• Interprets vision Concentration, planning,
problem solving
Frontal eye field
Parietal lobe
Auditory area

• Auditory area Front lobe

Sensory speech area
( Wernicke’s area)

Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe Motor speech area
(Broca’s area) Combining

• Interprets hearing Lateral sulcus

visual images,
visual recognition
of objects
Visual area
Interpretation of auditory patterns
Cerebellum

Temporal lobe Brainstem 28

 Motor & Sensory Areas
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Trunk Pelvis Trunk

Arm Neck Pelvis
Thigh
Forearm Forearm Arm Thigh

Thumb,
Leg
fingers, Hand, fingers,
and hand and thumb Leg

Upper Foot and

Foot and face toes
Facial
toes
expression Genitals
Lips

Salivation Teeth and

Vocalization gums
Mastication
Tongue and
Swallowing pharynx

Longitudinal Longitudinal
fissure fissure
(a) Motor area (b) Sensory area

Frontal lobe

Motor area

Sensory area

Central sulcus Parietal lobe

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 Association Areas
• Regions that are not primary motor or primary sensory areas
• Widespread throughout the cerebral cortex
• Analyze and interpret sensory experiences
• Provide memory, reasoning, verbalization, judgment, emotions
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Central sulcus
Motor areas involved with the control
Sensory areas involved with
of voluntary muscles
cutaneous and other senses

Concentration, planning,
problem solving

Frontal eye field

Parietal lobe
Auditory area
Sensory speech area
Front lobe ( Wernicke’s area)

Occipital lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area) Combining
visual images,
visual recognition
Lateral sulcus
of objects
Visual area
Interpretation of auditory patterns
Cerebellum

Temporal lobe Brainstem

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 Association Areas
• Frontal lobe association areas
• Concentrating
• Planning
• Complex problem solving
• Parietal lobe association areas
• Understanding speech
• Choosing words to express
thought
• Temporal lobe association areas
• Interpret complex sensory
experiences
• Store memories of visual scenes,
music, and complex patterns
• Occipital lobe association areas
• Analyze and combine visual
images with other sensory
experiences
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 Motor Areas
(pre-central sulcus)
• Primary motor areas Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Frontal lobes Central sulcus

Motor areas involved with the control

• Control voluntary muscles of voluntary muscles

Sensory areas involved with
cutaneous and other senses

Concentration, planning,
problem solving

• Broca’s area Frontal eye field

Auditory area
Parietal lobe

Sensory speech area

• Anterior to primary motor Front lobe ( Wernicke’s area)

Occipital lobe

cortex
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area) Combining
visual images,
visual recognition

• Usually in left hemisphere Lateral sulcus

of objects
Visual area
Interpretation of auditory patterns

• Controls muscles needed for Cerebellum

speech Temporal lobe Brainstem

• Frontal eye field

• Above Broca’s area
• Controls voluntary movements
of eyes and eyelids 32
 Hemisphere Dominance
• The left hemisphere is dominant in most individuals

• Dominant hemisphere controls: • Nondominant hemisphere controls:

• Speech • Nonverbal tasks
• Writing • Motor tasks
• Reading • Understanding and interpreting
• Verbal skills musical and visual patterns
• Analytical skills • Provides emotional and intuitive
• Computational skills thought processes

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 Basal Nuclei
• Masses of gray matter Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Deep within cerebral Longitudinal

fissure

hemispheres Caudate Right cerebral

hemisphere
• Produce dopamine Basal
nucleus
Putamen
nuclei
• Control certain muscular Globus
pallidus

activities
• Primarily by Thalamus
Cerebellum

inhibiting motor Hypothalamus

Brainstem
functions Spinal cord

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 Diencephalon
• Between cerebral hemispheres and above the brainstem
• Surrounds the third ventricle
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Superior
colliculus

• Thalamus Corpora quadrigemina

Optic chiasma
Inferior
colliculus

• Epithalamus
Optic nerve

Pituitary gland
Thalamus
Mammillary body

• Hypothalamus Optic tract

Third
ventricle

• Optic tracts Pons Cerebral

peduncles
Pineal gland

• Optic chiasm Pyramidal tract

Fourth
ventricle

• Infundibulum Olive
Cerebellar
peduncles

• Posterior pituitary Medulla

oblongata

• Mammillary bodies Spinal cord

• Pineal gland (a) (b)

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 Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Gateway for sensory impulses heading to cerebral cortex
• Receives all sensory impulses (except smell)
• Channels impulses to appropriate part of cerebral cortex for
interpretation
• Epithalamus
• Functions to connect the limbic system to other parts of the
brain.
•Hypothalamus
• Maintains homeostasis by regulating visceral activities
• Links nervous and endocrine systems (hence some say the
neuroendocrine system) 36
 Diencephalon
The Limbic System
• Consists of: • Functions:
• Portions of frontal lobe • Controls emotions
• Portions of temporal lobe • Produces feelings
• Hypothalamus • Interprets sensory impulses
• Thalamus
• Basal nuclei
• Other deep nuclei

37
 Brainstem
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Hypothalamus

Three parts: Thalamus

Diencephalon

1. Midbrain
2. Pons Corpus
callosum
3. Medulla Oblongata

Corpora
quadrigemina

Midbrain
Cerebral
aqueduct
Pons

Reticular
formation
Medulla
oblongata Spinal cord 38
 Midbrain

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Superior
colliculus
Corpora quadrigemina
Inferior
Optic chiasma colliculus
Optic nerve

Pituitary gland
Thalamus
Mammillary body
Third
Optic tract
ventricle

• Between diencephalon and pons Pons Cerebral

peduncles
Pineal gland

• Contains bundles of fibers that Pyramidal tract

Fourth
ventricle

join lower parts of brainstem and Olive

Cerebellar

spinal cord with higher parts of peduncles

Medulla

the brain oblongata

• Cerebral aqueduct Spinal cord

• Cerebral peduncles (bundles of (a) (b)

nerve fibers)
• Corpora quadrigemina (centers
for visual and auditory reflexes) 39
 Pons
• Rounded bulge on underside of
brainstem Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Superior
• Between medulla oblongata and Corpora quadrigemina
colliculus

Inferior

midbrain Optic nerve

Optic chiasma colliculus

• Helps regulate rate and Pituitary gland

Mammillary body
Thalamus

depth of breathing
Third
Optic tract
ventricle

• Relays nerve impulses to and from Pons Cerebral

peduncles
Pineal gland
medulla oblongata and cerebellum Fourth
Pyramidal tract ventricle
(bridge) Olive
Cerebellar
peduncles

Medulla
oblongata

Spinal cord

(a) (b)

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 Medulla Oblongata
• Enlarged continuation of
spinal cord Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Superior

• Conducts ascending and Corpora quadrigemina

colliculus

Inferior

descending impulses between Optic nerve

Optic chiasma colliculus

Pituitary gland
brain and spinal cord Mammillary body
Thalamus

Third
• Contains cardiac, Optic tract
ventricle

vasomotor, and respiratory Pons Cerebral

peduncles
Pineal gland

control centers Pyramidal tract

Fourth
ventricle

• Contains various nonvital Olive

Cerebellar

reflex control centers peduncles

Medulla
(coughing, sneezing, oblongata

swallowing, and vomiting) Spinal cord

(a) (b)

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 Reticular Formation
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• Complex network of nerve Hypothalamus

Diencephalon
fibers scattered throughout the Thalamus

brain stem
• Extends into the diencephalon Corpus
• Connects to centers of callosum

hypothalamus, basal nuclei,

cerebellum, and cerebrum
• Filters incoming sensory Corpora
quadrigemina
information
• Arouses cerebral cortex into Midbrain
Cerebral
state of wakefulness Pons
aqueduct

Reticular
formation
Medulla
oblongata Spinal cord
42
 Cerebellum
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• Inferior to occipital lobes
• Posterior to pons and medulla Longitudinal
fissure

oblongata
• Two hemispheres like cerebrum Thalamus
Corpus callosum

• Vermis connects hemispheres

• Cerebellar cortex (gray matter) Superior peduncle

• Arbor vitae (white matter) Pons

Cerebellum

• Cerebellar peduncles (nerve fiber Middle peduncle

Inferior peduncle

tracts) Medulla oblongata

• Dentate nucleus (largest nucleus in

cerebellum)
• Integrates sensory information
concerning position of body parts
• Coordinates skeletal muscle activity
• Maintains posture
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44
Major Parts of the Brain

45
 The Spinal Cord
 Foramen magnum to L1 or L2
 Runs through the vertebral canal of the
vertebral column

 Functions
1. Sensory and motor innervation of entire body
inferior to the head through the spinal nerves
2. Two-way conduction pathway between the body
and the brain
3. Major center for reflexes
 Spinal cord

 Fetal 3rd month: ends at

coccyx
 Birth: ends at L3
 Adult position at approx L1-2
during childhood
 End: conus medullaris
 This tapers into filum terminale
of connective tissue, tethered
to coccyx
 Spinal cord segments are
superior to where their
corresponding spinal nerves
emerge through intervetebral
foramina (see also fig 17.5, p
288)
 Denticulate ligaments: lateral
shelves of pia mater anchoring
to dura (meninges: more later)

http://www.apparelyzed.com/spinalcord.html
 Spinal cord anatomy
 Posterior median sulcus (“p”)
 Anterior median fissure (“a”)
 White matter (yellow here)
 Gray matter (brown here)
“p”

“a”
 Gray/White in spinal cord
 Hollow central cavity (“central
canal”)
 Gray matter surrounds cavity
Dorsal (posterior)
 White matter surrounds gray
matter (white: ascending and white
descending tracts of axons)
 “H” shaped on cross section Central canal______
gray

 Dorsal half of “H”: cell bodies of

interneurons
 Ventral half of “H”: cell bodies
of motor neurons Ventral (anterior)
 No cortex (as in brain)
 Spinal cord anatomy
 Gray commissure with central canal
 Columns of gray running the length of the spinal
cord
 Posterior (dorsal) horns (cell bodies of interneurons)
 Anterior (ventral) horns (cell bodies of motor neurons)
 Lateral horns in thoracic and superior lumbar cord

*
*

*
*
 White matter of the spinal cord
(myelinated and unmyelinated axons)
 Ascending fibers: sensory information from
sensory neurons of body up to brain
 Descending fibers: motor instructions from brain
to spinal cord
 Stimulates contraction of body’s muscles
 Stimumulates secretion from body’s glands
 Commissural fibers: white-matter fibers crossing
from one side of cord to the other
 Most pathways cross (or decussate) at some point
 Most synapse two or three times along the way,
e.g. in brain stem, thalamus or other
Major ascending pathways for the somatic senses
(thousands of nerve fibers in each)

Spinocerebellar:
proprioception from skeletal
muscles to cerebellum of same
side (don’t cross)

Dorsal column: discriminative

touch sensation through
thalamus to somatosensory
cortex (cross in medulla)

Spinothalamic: carries
nondiscriminate sensations
(pain, temp, pressure) through
the thalamus to the primary
somatosensory cortex (cross in
spinal cord before ascending)
 Some
Descending
Pathways
Synapse with ventral (anterior)
horn interneurons

Pyramidal tracts:
Lateral corticospinal – cross in
pyramids of medulla; voluntary motor
to limb muscles
Ventral (anterior) corticospinal –
cross at spinal cord; voluntary to
axial muscles

“Extrapyramidal” tracts: one

example