AC MACHINES-

INTRODUCTION
 Module 1
Alternators - basic principle, constructional features of salient pole type and cylindrical
type alternators, advantages of stationary armature, turbo-alternator. Armature winding –
types of armature winding- single layer, double layer, full pitched and short pitched
winding, slot angle, pitch factor and distribution factor – numerical problems. Effect of pitch
factor on harmonics – advantages of short chorded winding, EMF Equation – numerical
problems. Harmonics in generated EMF –suppression of harmonics.
Electrical generator
Electrical motor
Power system
Faraday’s law
 Faraday’s law
Consider the loop shown:

d m d dx
 Bl x  Bl
dt dt dt

dx
E  Blv  Bl
dt

d m
Therefore, E 
dt

CONCLUSION: to produce emf one should make ANY

change in a magnetic flux with time!
Faraday’s law
 Faraday's First Law
Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to
be induced in the coil. This emf induced is called induced emf and if
the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through
the circuit and this current is called induced current.
Method to change magnetic field:
 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
 Faraday's Second Law
It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of
the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil and flux
associated with the coil.
Lenz’s law
 There is an induced current in a closed conducting loop if and
only if the magnetic flux through the loop is changing. The
direction of the induced current is such that the induced
magnetic field always opposes the change in the flux.
 Right Hand Rule
• If you wrap your
fingers around the
coil in the direction
of the current, your
thumb points
north.
Conventional current directions
 Alternator DC Generator

Rotating field Stationary field

and and
stationary armature rotating armature
Synchronous Generator(Alternator)
 They are the generators rotating at synchronous speed
 One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair
of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding.
The relation between speed and frequency is N=120f/P,
where f is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). P is the
number of poles (2,4,6...) and N is the rotational speed
in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Alternator
Main Components of a Synchronous
Generator
 The Stator: – The stator carries the three separate
( 3-phase ) armature windings physically and
electrically displaced from each other by 120
degrees producing an AC voltage output.
 The Rotor: – The rotor carries the magnetic field
either as permanent magnets or wound field coils
connected to an external DC power source via slip
rings and carbon brushes.
 Alternator
 The basic advantage is that there is no slip(slip is
the difference between synchronous speed and
actual speed of rotor. So the effect of slip on rotor
frequency , induced voltage , power etc is not there
in synchronous generator.
Synchronous speed for different poles
CONSTRUCTION
 There can be two types of construction:
 1. Rotating armature and stationary field type
 2. Rotating field and stationary armature type

Practically most of the alternators prefer rotating field

type construction with stationary armature.
Advantages of rotating field over
rotating armature
 Large space can be provided to house large number of armature
conductors and insulation.
 High voltage winding is protected from centrifugal force.
 Easier to collect large current from stationary armature.
 Sparking at the slip rings can be avoided by keeping field rotating
which is the low voltage circuit.
 The inertia of the rotating part is less due low voltage and hence
less insulation.
 The entire system become robust and mechanically stable with
rotating field and due to low inertia higher speed and hence higher
output can be generated.
 Ventilation arrangement for the high voltage can be easily arranged
since It is stationary.
stator
 Stator is the stationary armature
 Consist of stator core with slots to hold the winding
 Built up of laminated special steel to reduce eddy
current and hysteresis losses.
 The entire core is fabricated in a stator frame which
act as a support .
Rotor

 There are two types of rotors used in alternator:

1. Salient pole type
* Poles are projected out from the rotor surface
* Rotor has large diameter and small axial
length.
 Smooth cylindrical type:
* Non salient and non projected type rotor
* Rotor has a smooth solid cylinder having no. of
slots to accommodate the field coils.
* Small diameter and large axial length.
Difference between the two rotor
SALIENT POLE TYPE
 Projected poles

 Non uniform air gap

 Large diameter and small axial length

 Mechanically weak

 Preferred for low speed alternators

 Separate damper winding is provided

 Prime mover used are water turbines and IC engines

 For same size rating is smaller than cylindrical type.

SMOOTH CYLINDRICAL TYPE:
 Unslotted portion act as poles and are non projecting.

 Uniform air gap

 Small dia and large axial length

 Mechanically robust

 Preferred for high speed alternators – turbo

alternators.
 Prime mover used are steam turbines and electric
motors
 For same size rating is higher than salient type

 Separate damper winding not required

Cylindrical rotor Salient Pole rotor
Working principle

 Emf is maximum at 2
and 4 and minimum
at 1 and 3
 In one revolution emf
attains two maxima
and minima
 In a 2 pole machine
one mechanical
revolution
corresponds to one
electrical cycle.
 Consider a 4 pole alternator:
 Emf attains maximum at 2,4,6,8 and min. at
1,3,5,7
 So for a 4 pole alternator
 360 mechanical= 720 electrical (360*4/2)
 For a p pole machine

Mechanical angle= (p/2) * Electrical angle.

Frequency of the induced emf
 F=cycles/ sec
= cycles per revolution * revolutions in 1 sec
F= (P/2)*(N/60)
where N= revolutions per minute(rpm)
F=PN/120
The alternator has to be rotated at a fixed speed to
keep the frequency of the generated emf constant. This is
called synchronous speed

Ns = 120 f /P
Armature winding
 Three sets of windings displaced in such a way that
their EMFs are 120 degree displaced.
 In a three phase alternator the 6 terminals are
brought out and connected in star or delta fashion.
 Each set of winding represents winding per phase
and emf induced is the per phase emf.
 Their emf are aiding in nature.
 Terms in armature winding
 CONDUCTOR:
Part of the wire under the influence of magnetic field and responsible for
the induced emf is called active length of the conductor.
 TURN
A conductor in one slot when connected with a conductor in another slot
forms a turn
 COIL
No of turns are grouped together to form a coil.
 Coil side
Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side
 Pole pitch

Centre to centre distance between two adjacent poles

180 degree electrical
Also termed as how many slots are under one pole.
Eg: A 2 pole 18 slot machine.
pole pitch= 180 degree elctrical
or S/P= 18/2=9
 Slot angle

Angle contributed by one slot . =180/(S/P)

 Armature Windings
 Single layer and multi layer windings
 Concentrated and distributed winding
 Half coiled and whole coiled winding
 Lap ,wave and concentrated winding
 Full pitched and short pitched winding
 Integral slot winding and fractional slot winding.
Single layer and multi layer windings
Concentrated and distributed winding

Concentrated winding:
 All conductor are concentrated in one slot under a pole. if there is
only one slot available for winding under one pole.
Distributed winding:
 If no. of slot is more than no. of pole. means, winding is distributed in
many slot under a pole.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONCENTRATED AND DISTRIBUTED
WINDING
1. Induced emf in concentrated winding is greater than distributed.
2. harmonic or noise in distributed winding is lesser than concentrated
winding.(that's why we normally use distributed winding in expense of
lesser emf).So, improved waveform
3.less armature reaction in distributed winding.
SHORT PITCHED AND FULL PITCHED
WINDING:
 SHORT PITCHED AND FULL PITCHED
WINDING:
 If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, then the armature
winding is said to be full – pitched, emf induced in one side of
the coil will be in 180° phase shift with emf induced in the other
side of the coil. Thus, total terminal voltage of the coil will be
nothing but the direct arithmetic sum of these two emfs.
 If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is
referred as fractional pitched. resultant terminal voltage of the
coil is vector sum of these two emfs and it is less than that of full-
pitched coil.
 Chording Angle ξ is defined as the angle by which the coil span
departs from a pole pitch i.e. 180 degree.
Thus, Chording Angle ξ = 180° – Coil Span
If Chording Angle ξ is zero then it is a full pitch coil.
 Advantages of short pitched coil
 Length required for end connections is less
 Eliminates high frequency harmonics
 Eddy current and hysteresis loss also reduces and hence
efficiency improves.
Disadvantages of short pitched coil
 The total voltage around the coils is some what reduced.
Because the voltage induced in the two coil sides are
slightly out of phase.
 WINDING FACTOR:

 Kw=Kd*Kp
(i) Distribution factor (Kd), also called breadth factor
(ii) Pitch factor (Kp), also known as chord factor
 Pitch factor (Kp)
Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in short pitched/ emf induced in
full pitched winding
cos 𝛼/ 2
Kp= 2𝐸

2𝐸

Kp = cos α/ 2
 For a full-pitch winding, Kp = 1. However, for a short-pitch
winding, Kp < 1.
 Note that a is always an integer multiple of the slot angle β
 Distribution factor
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
 K d=
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒎 /𝟐
Kd=
𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏 /𝟐
EMF EQUATION OF ALTERNATOR
 HARMONICS

 The fundamental wave is defined as that component which is having same

frequency as that of complex wave.The component which is having double
the frequency of that of fundamental wave called second harmonic. While
the component which is having the frequency three times that of fundamental
is called third harmonic and so on.The complex waveform contains both the
even as well as odd harmonics.
 e = E1m sin (ωt +Φ1) + E2m sin (ωt +Φ2) +E3m sin
(ωt +Φ3)+........+Enm sin (ωt +Φn)
where E1m sin (ωt +Φ1) is the fundamental component of maximum
value E1m having an angle Φ1 from the instant of zero of the complex
wave. Similarly, Enm sin (ωt +Φn) represents nth harmonic of maximum
value Enm and having phase angle Φn with respect to complex wave.
 The harmonics causes;

1)overheating of electrical equipments

2)high voltages and circulating currents
3)equipment malfunction due to distortion
4)false tripping of circuit breaker
5)metering error and generator failure etc
 Slot Harmonics
 The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap
reluctance at the surface of the stator non uniform.
 Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or
there is a relative motion between the stator and rotor,
the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any point in
the air gap.
 Minimization of Harmonics:

 1) Distribution of armature windings :

 2) Chording :
 3) Fractional slot windings:
 4) Skewing:
 5) Large length of air gap
 6)Using chamfered poles
 RATING OF ALTERNATOR

 Designer does not know the actual consumer power factor

while manufacturing transformers and generators i.e. the
Power Factor of Transformer and Generator/Alternator
depends on the nature of connected load such as resistive,
capacitive, and inductive loads etc which affect the overall
power factors of transformer and generator as the consume
reactive power according to the loads as well. So the
alternator has rating expressed in KVA or MVA
 At the other hand, motor has fixed power factor, i.e motor has
defined power factor and the rating has been mentioned in
KW on motor nameplate data table. That is why we are clear
words, motor only consumes active power and provide
mechanical power in HP or KW at motor shaft.