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Types of Tests:
1) One-tailed Test – a test of
statistical hypothesis where the
region of rejection is on only
one side of the sampling
distribution.
1) Two-tailed Test – a test of
statistical hypothesis where the
region of rejection is on both side
of the sampling distribution.
2. Which of the following statements exhibits a non-predictive
alternative hypothesis?
a) H1: µ = µo
b) H1: µ ≠ µo
c) H1: µ > µo
d) H1: µ < µo
Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
1) p-Value of a Test
The p-value of a test provides a measure of how much
statistical evidence exists to support the alternative hypothesis.
Interpreting the p-value
If the p-value is less than 1%, there is overwhelming
evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis.
Weak Evidence
(Not Significant)
No Evidence
(Not Significant)
p-value=.0359
Interpreting the p-value
a) independent samples
b) independent samples only if the sample sizes are equal
c) dependent samples
d) dependent samples only if the sample sizes are equal
8. Which of the following assumptions can be done for the
t-test for the difference between the means of two
independent populations?
One-Way Classification
H0 : 1 = 2 = … = k
H1 : at least two of the means are not equal.
9. Which of the following is NOT a required condition for
one-way ANOVA?
a) The sample sizes must be equal.
b) The populations must all be normally distributed.
c) The population variances must be equal.
d) The samples for each treatment must be selected
randomly and independently.
10. One-way ANOVA is applied to independent samples
taken from three normally distributed populations with
equal variances. Which of the following is the null
hypothesis for this procedure?
a) H0: μ1 + μ 2 + μ 3 = 0
b) H0: μ1 + μ 2 + μ 3 ≠ 0
c) H0: μ1 = μ 2 = μ 3 = 0
d) H0: μ1 = μ 2 = μ 3
Measures of Relationship
o Statistics are widely used in the social sciences in
making predictions which are based upon the fact
that two variables are related.
o The process of obtaining the measure of the degree
of relationship or association between variables is
called correlation analysis.
o When a known measure of one variable is used to
make estimates of a second variable, the process is
known as regression analysis.
Regression Analysis
o Regression analysis is the process by which one
variable Y is predicted from another variable X.
o The variable Y is called the dependent variable and
X is called the independent variable or the predictor.
a
Y X
b Y bX
n n
Correlation Analysis
o Correlation analysis is used to measure the linear
relationship or association between two variables.
o The measure of the degree of association between
two variables is known as the coefficient of
correlation (r).
o The value of r varies from –1 to +1. This can
expressed in the interval – 1 ≤ r ≤≤ 1.
o For perfectly positive correlation, r = 1, while in a
perfectly negative correlation, r = –1 .
o If r = 0, then there is no linear relation existing
between the two variables.
Correlation Analysis
o A positive correlation is present when high values in one
variable are associated with high values of another variable or
vice versa.
o On the other hand, when high values on one variable are
associated with low values of the other variable or vice versa,
a negative correlation is present.
Correlation Analysis
o The degree of linear relationship can be interpreted
by using the following range of values:
Range of Value of r Description
0.90 to 1.00 or (-0.90 to -1.00) Very high positive (negative) correlation
0.70 to 0.89 or (-0.70 to -0.89) High positive (negative) correlation
0.50 to 0.69 or (-0.50 to -0.69) Moderate positive (negative) correlation
0.30 to 0.49 or (-0.30 to -0.49) Low positive (negative) correlation
0.00 to 0.29 or ( 0.00 to -0.29) Little, if any correlation
Correlation Analysis
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
o is a measure of the linear correlation (dependence) between
two variables X and Y, giving a value between +1 and −1
inclusive, where 1 is total positive correlation, 0 is no
correlation, and −1 is total negative correlation.
o is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the degree of
linear dependence between two variables. It was developed
by Karl Pearson from a related idea introduced by Francis
Galton in the 1880s.
n XY X Y
Pearson r
n X 2 x 2 n Y 2 Y 2
11. Assuming that a linear relationship exists between Age
(X) and Job Satisfaction (Y), if the coefficient of
correlation (r) equals -0.95, what does this means?
a) there is very weak correlation.
b) if the value of X is low, the value of Y is high.
c) the value of X is always greater than the value of Y.
d) if the value of X is high, so as the value of Y.
12. A regression analysis between weight (y in pounds)
and height (x in inches) resulted in the following least
squares line: y = 120 + 5x. This implies that if the height
is increased by 1 inch, the weight is expected to which of
the following?
a) increase by 1 pound.
b) decrease by 1 pound.
c) increase by 5 pounds.
d) increase by 24 pounds.
13. In the simple linear regression model, what does the y-
intercept represents?
a) change in y per unit change in x.
b) change in x per unit change in y.
c) value of y when x = 0.
d) value of x when y = 0.
All these tests are however similar in that they provide decision-
making information about the population and all are based upon the
difference between the observed sample frequencies and some
expected or theoretical frequencies of a population.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
The Test for Goodness - of – Fit
To determine if a set of observed data corresponds to some
theoretical distribution, a chi-square goodness-of-fit test is
performed. It is used to determine whether a set of observed
frequencies of one variable is the same as the expected frequencies
on the same variable.
The basic formula for the chi-square is
OF EF
2
2
EF
To obtain the critical value for the chi-square, use the chi-square
distribution table. The tabular value can be obtained by getting
the intersection of the level of significance and the degrees of
freedom.
The Chi-Square Test, χ2
Computing Expected Frequencies
Total Row
Observed A B C X
Frequency D E F Y
G H I Z
Total Column Q R S T
Total Row
Expected QX/T RX/T SX/T X
QY/T RY/T SY/T Y
Frequency
QZ/T RZ/T SY/T Z
Total Column Q R S T
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Tests
Choosing a non-
Choosing Choosing parametric test
parametric test
Correlation test Pearson Spearman
Independent measures,
Independent-measures t-test Mann-Whitney test
2 groups
Independent measures, One-way, independent-
Kruskal-Wallis test
>2 groups measures ANOVA
Repeated measures,
Matched-pair t-test Wilcoxon test
2 conditions
Repeated measures, One-way, repeated
Friedman's test
>2 conditions measures ANOVA
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient or Spearman's
rho,
• named after Charles Spearman and often denoted by the
Greek letter ρ (rho), is a non-parametric measure of
statistical dependence between two variables.
• It assesses how well the relationship between two variables
can be described using a monotonic function.
• Spearman's coefficient, like any correlation calculation, is
appropriate for both continuous and discrete variables,
including ordinal variables.
• The Spearman correlation coefficient is defined as
the Pearson correlation coefficient between the ranked
variables.
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Mann–Whitney U test
• is a non-parametric test of the null hypothesis that two
populations are the same against an alternative hypothesis,
especially that a particular population tends to have larger
values than the other.
• It has greater efficiency than the t-test on non-normal
distributions, such as a mixture of normal distributions, and it
is nearly as efficient as the t-test on normal distributions.
• It was named after Henry Berthold Mann and Donald
Ransom Whitney.
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks
(named after William Kruskal and W. Allen Wallis) is a non-
parametric method for testing whether samples originate
from the same distribution.
• It is used for comparing two or more samples that are
independent, and that may have different sample sizes, and
extends the Mann-Whitney U test to more than two groups.
• The parametric equivalent of the Kruskal-Wallis test is
the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Wilcoxon signed-rank test
• is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used when
comparing two related samples, matched samples, or
repeated measurements on a single sample to assess
whether their population mean ranks differ (i.e. it is a paired
difference test).
• It can be used as an alternative to the paired Student t-
test, t-test for matched pairs, or the t-test for dependent
samples when the population cannot be assumed to
be normally distributed.
• The test is named for Frank Wilcoxon (1892–1965) who, in a
single paper, proposed both it and the rank-sum test for two
independent samples .
Other Non-Parametric Tests
Friedman test
• is a non-parametric statistical test developed by
the U.S. economist Milton Friedman.
• Similar to the parametric repeated measures ANOVA, it is
used to detect differences in treatments across multiple test
attempts.
• The procedure involves ranking each row (or block) together,
then considering the values of ranks by columns.
16. A researcher read that firearm-related deaths for
people aged 1 to 18 were distributed as follows: 74%
were accidental, 16% were homicides, and 10% were
suicides. In her city, there were 68 accidental deaths,
27 homicides, and 5 suicides during the past year. What
statistical test she should use if she wants to test the
claim that the percentages are equal?
a) t-test on dependent sample
b) Anova
c) chi-square
d) pearson r
17. In a large department store, the owner wishes to see
whether the number of shoplifting incidents per day will
change if the number of uniformed security officers is
doubled. The number of shoplifting incidents were
recorded 7 days before security was increased and 7
days after the increased. The owner wants to find out if
there is a difference in the number of shoplifting
incidents before and after the increase in security.
What test will he perform?
a) Kruskal=-Wallis b) Spearman rho
c) Mann-Whitney d) Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Research
a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes
collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
facts that links man’s speculation with reality.
a) analytical
b) logical
c) cyclical
d) empirical
Types of Research
a) quantitative research
b) emancipatory approach
c) qualitative research
d) postmodern research
The Ethics of Research
Five ethical criteria for research
Autonomy/self-determination (includes informed consent
and confidentiality)
Non-maleficence (not doing harm)
Beneficence (doing good)
Justice (are the purposes just?)
Positive contribution to knowledge
22. What ethical criteria of research that requires the
researchers not to harm their subjects in any way,
instead, to do some good, or to be of benefit, to the
people who are being researched?
a) autonomy/self determination
b) non-maleficence/beneficence
c) principles of justice or fairness
d) positive contribution to knowledge
Steps in the Research Process
Defining the problem
Choosing the methodology
Reviewing the literature
Preparation
Research design:
• Sampling
• Data collection
• Administration
• Data analysis
• Reporting
Conducting the research
Disseminating the findings
Steps in the Research Process
DEFINING THE PROBLEM
• In any research you must define your problem, note the
dimensions of the issue, the target group affected, the
political context, and the anticipated outcomes.
• Decide whether your research is to be exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory.
• Remember that your topic must be relevant, researchable,
feasible and ethical.
• A good research problem is characterized by the acronym
‘SMART’:
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bounded
23. A good research problem is characterized by the
acronym ‘SMART’. What does this stands for?