THEORY OF

CONFERENCE
INTERPRETING
Bui Nguyet Anh M.A
Faculty of Business English (FBE)
Foreign Trade University

1
 1. Definitions and concepts

Interpreting:

The process by which an

interpretation is produced,
the activity of the
interpreter.
2
Interpretation:

Oral translation, the product

of the interpreter’s activity.

3
Speaker:

Original speaker, not to be

confused with the interpreter
in relay situation.

4
Delegate:

Anyone participating in a
meeting, either speaking or
listening.

5
Mother tongue:
An interpreter’s best active language. It
may not be the language of their parents
or their country of birth.

In some cases an interpreter may have two

mother tongues.

6
Source language:

Language of the original

speech and speaker speaks
that language.

7
Target language:

Language of the
interpretation and
interpreter speaks that
language.
8
Active language:

A language that an
interpreter can interpret in to.

9
Passive language:

A language that an
interpreter can hear from.

10
Working languages:

The sum of an interpreter’s

active and passive
languages

11
Active listening:
Constant attention to the
ideas of the speaker beyond
the language used to
express them.

12
Consecutive:

Interpreting a speech or part

of a speech immediately
after it has been spoken.

13
Simultaneous:

Interpreting a speech or part

of a speech at the same
time it is being spoken.

14
Retour:
A situation in which the
interpreter is working into an
active language rather than
their mother tongue.

15
Relay:
The use of one
interpretation as a source
for others; used in situations
where a meeting is
multilingual.

16
 Whispering:
By nature whispering is
simultaneous interpretation
without the aid of audio
equipment.
Whispering is used when there
are only 2 or 3 delegates who
need translation.
17
Word-for-Word:
An interpretation that closely
follows the form and
structure of the source
speech

18
 2. Basic Principles of Consecutive
Interpreting
There are 4 basic stages in
consecutive interpreting:

1. Listening and Understanding

2. Analyzing
3. Memorizing
4. Re-expressing

19
2.1. Listening & Understanding

• of ideas, not a collection of

individual words.
• So, we need good
understanding of grammar,
syntax and messages, but
not every single word.
20
• “What do you do if you do
not know a word or an
expression that you hear in
a speech?
1. Base on the context to
translate

21
• E.g.1:
“I don’t think that the advisory
committee is the appropriate
forum for discussion of this point.
What is important is that the
groundwork be done in the
technical working parties, in order
to prepare the basis for a decision
in the executive committee”.

22
2. Deduce the meaning of
the new word with clues
in the context.
E.g.: In the following text
suppose “toll” is a new word
while words highlighted in
yellow are clues

23
E.g. 2:
“Given the topography of the country, the
construction of motorways has been very
expensive. The Norwegians have found
the solution to their financing problems by
imposing tolls. And these tolls are pretty
expensive. The roads are wonderfully built,
a pleasure to drive upon, with beautiful
scenery, but when the poor driver gets to
the end of the journey and has to pay the
toll, they certainly feel that their wallet is
much lighter”.

24
• If deduction is impossible:

Admit ignorance and clarify the

meaning with speaker. Never
betray the delegates by
missing out or making up
meanings to hide ignorance.

25
• To avoid problems, listen
constantly, attentively and
actively.

26
• Differences between active
listening and passive
listening:

27
 Active listening:

• Constant attention to the

meanings or ideas expressed
by a speaker, beyond the
forms of language used to
express them.

28
 Passive listening:

• Listening for main ideas to

get the general message
without paying attention to
every detail.

29
• E.g. 3:
“Despite the apparent
confidence shown by the
government in the latest
measures it has proposed to
boost the economy, business
confidence remains low and
the consumer climate is
gloomy”.
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- Passive listening by a man
passing by on the street

- Active listening by a
government official, a
government opponent and
an interpreter.

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• To listen actively, an
interpreter must not pay
attention to individual words
but the overall sense of a
speech and keep asking:
“What is the speaker’s
message?”
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• Active listening skill is not a
natural gift, it has to be
learned and trained. It
requires great powers of
concentration, stamina,
fitness and alertness.

33
 2.2. Analyzing
2.2.1. Analyzing speech types
1. Rhetorical speech:
- Impressive, elegant with
metaphors, images, flowery
language, jokes, anecdotes, etc.
- Interpreter must mobilize all of
their resources in target
language
34
 2. Stone-walling speech:
- Lengthy without any viewpoint,
important information or
communication: difficult for
interpreter
- Interpreter should follow the
speaker as closely as possible

35
 3. Logical speech:

a. Logical speech with clear argument:

- Interpreter should watch the logical
connection between ideas to know
what are pros and cons and turning
points between them (but, however,
on the other hand, etc.).

36
 b. Logical speech with unclear
argument:
- Interpreter must be vigilant and try
to make ideas clear by
rearranging them. Try to
recognize the turning points,
pause and add transition signals.
Never point out the speaker’s
mistake and embarrass him/her.

37
• E.g. 4:
“Mechanization and the widespread use of
insecticides, herbicides, and chemical
fertilizers have essentially freed Europeans
and North Americans from real food shortages,
from hunger. But they have also brought with
them their problems, notably ecological ones.
We can compare ourselves to other continents
and feel privileged. But will the price not be too
high one day? Are we not overproducing,
making neither economic nor environmental
sense? But if others throughout the world still
experience famine, surely we should exploit all
means available, in order to share our riches
with them. . .” (and so on for another 5 mins).
38
 4. Narrative, chronological
speech:

- Pay attention to time phrases and

verb tenses.
- If speaker does not follow his time
order correctly, interpreter should
quietly correct his mistake.

39
 5. Descriptive speech:

- Difficult for interpreter, not logical so

interpreter does not know which way
it is moving.
- Concentrate as hard as possible to
remember and to take notes as much
as possible.

40
• E.g. 5:
“Exports have risen, and so have
imports. The trade deficit is growing,
although the current account deficit
remains stable thanks to tourism.
Rising unemployment and
consistently high interest rates are a
source of worry for the government
but the Central Bank continues to
warn about inflationary pressures”.

41
 2.2.2. Analyzing main ideas and
accessories
• Sometimes due to time
limitation or the length of
speech interpreter has to
omit secondary information
and just keep the main
ideas logically.
42
• Easier to remember and
recall information.
• A summary is required by
the chairman

43
E.g. 6:
Full version:

“The Secretary-General has put

forward to the member states a
new proposal for the reform of the
functioning of the UN. US State
Department sources confirmed that,
although in principle they
recognized the need for reform,
they did not see it being along the
lines suggested by the Secretary-
General”. 44
 Condensed version:

The Secretary-General has made a

proposal for UN reform. The US
has said it is against the proposal,
although it is in favor of reform in
principle.

45
 2.2.3. Analyzing links
1. Links showing logical
consequences:
- Therefore, consequently, so, as a
result, thus, etc.
- E.g. 7:
“The import duties imposed on Korean
cars are excessive and discriminatory.
Therefore they must be reduced”.
46
2. Links showing logical causes:

- As, since, because, due to, thanks to

- E.g.8: “The American government

has been putting greater pressure on
the Colombian authorities, because
the illegal import and consumption of
cocain from that country is increasing
again”.
47
3. Links showing sequential ideas:
- And, As well as, next, then, after
that, first, second, third, last, etc.

4. Links showing opposition ideas:

- But, whereas, meanwhile, however,
on the other hand, in contrast, on
the contrary, in turns, etc.
48
- E.g. 9:
• “The strong Mark may not be
good for our exports, but it has
contributed to holding down
inflation”.
• “You claim that you have been
unable to fulfill your export quotas,
but our figures show that import
from your country are actually
double the quotas”.

49
• “Certain countries have
attempted to apply strict
monetary and fiscal discipline,
whereas others have felt it
more important to stimulate
the economy”.

• “This is a very useful proposal.

However, I don’t think we
should get too excited about it”.
50
 2.3. Memorizing
1. Visualize what the speaker is saying
E.g. 10:
“Hurricane Henry moved into northern
Florida early yesterday morning. Nearly
half a million people have had to be
evacuated as the 200 kph winds uprooted
trees, tore roofs off some houses and
completely destroyed some. In coastal
areas many boats were submerged by the
10 meter wave, while others were
beached and left stranded with their hulls
broken”.
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2. Make a skeleton of ideas in mind

Make a tree outline of the speech

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3. Concentrate hard on the
beginning and end

- Good beginning leads us to the right

path.
- Good end makes a speech complete
and significant.

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 2.4. Re-expressing
2.4.1. Basic rules
• We are public speakers so we
must have eye contact with the
audience, speak clearly and
fluently, look regularly at the
general audience (not staring or
looking at one delegate all the
time).
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 2.4. Re-expressing
2.4.1. Basic rules
• Interpret immediately after
the speaker stops.

• Glance down at notes to

recall information.

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• Deliver the speech
efficiently (no repetition or
hesitation), keep sentences
short, use only 2/3 or 3/4
the time the speaker uses.

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• Use the right intonation
and pauses. Drop voice
at the end of the
sentence and make a
short pause.
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• Deliver speaker’s ideas, not
individual words, combine 2
sentences into 1 or divide a
long complex sentence into 2
short simple sentences with
clearer ideas if necessary.

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• Use our own words to speak
naturally.

• Best interpreters are the ones

least noticed by the audience as
an interpreter.

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• Constantly improve source or
target language by:
- learning modern terminology
- enriching vocabulary and
- reading well-written
publications.

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 2.4.2. Clarification question

If we don’t understand the

speaker’s message, we should
consider the following
situations:

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• If it is an informal small
meeting: Ask the speaker for
clarification
• If it is a formal large meeting:
Just interpret generally and get
on with it.

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• Ask yourself whether the question
is really necessary
- If ‘yes’: ask the speaker for
clarification.
- If ‘no’, the question is just for
curiosity, don’t ask the speaker.

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• If the question is necessary:
ask the speaker politely in
the speaker’s own language
and thank him for the
answer.

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• Questions must be: useful, clear and
precise.
- Don’t start the question with: “I didn’t
understand...” or “There was
something I missed...”.
- Begin the question with: “Could you
clarify...” or “Could you repeat...”

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• Once a question is put,
concentrate hard on the
answer and get it right in the
interpretation.

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3. Consecutive interpreting with note-taking
3.1. practical points for note-taking

• Note pad can be 15 x 20 cm

(A5 paper sheet), horizontally
attached.
• Never use loose sheets of
paper, they may become
disordered.
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• Write on front page only so
you don’t have to change eye
direction when reading notes.

• Notes should be easy to read

so we don’t have to spend
much time decoding notes.

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• Instead, we should look at and
communicate with the
audience.

• Notes should be written in

large characters and spread
out over the page.
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• Don’t try to save paper.
• Don’t use difficult or unfamiliar
symbols or abbreviations.

e.g. “ind.” Can stand for

industrial or independence.
Confusion may happen.
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 3.2. What to note?

• Main ideas (by key words).

• Links between main ideas

(but, so, because, etc.).

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• Separation between ideas
(use a dash for each idea).
• Speaker’s viewpoint (in
argument speech).
• Verb tenses.

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• Modal verbs (should, must, may…)
to reflect speaker’s attitude.
• Numbers and dates (difficult to
remember)

- Prepare to take notes quickly if you

guess there will be numbers or
dates.
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• Proper names (region,
people, company,
organization…) should be
noted down phonetically

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• E.g: “Our export to our European partners
have progressed well over the last year,
although we have had more difficulty in
exporting to countries with weaker
currencies, who had sometimes
deliberately made competitive
devaluations in order to achieve a trade
advantage through undervaluation of their
currency. For example, exports to
Germany progressed by 3.2%, to $25.7
million, whereas in the case of Italy
export growth was a marginal 0.6%, total
exports amounting to $11.4 million”.
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• Lists should be noted as
completely as possible. If the
list is not fully noted, leave a
gap and ask the speaker to
repeat if necessary.

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• Example 14:

Speaker: “The countries concerned are:

Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia,
Panama and Cuba”.

Note: Venezuela
--
Peru
Bolivia
--
Cuba

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 3.3. How to note?
1. Diagonal layout:
According to psychologists, it is
easier to move eyes from left to right,
from top to bottom.
Subject
Adverb
Verb
Object
Predicate 78
• E.g.“Hungary has complained that
its steel exports to the European
Union are unable to develop
because of excessively restrictive
tariff quotas. But the Union
representative pointed out that
quotas are still underused by
Hungary by a large margin, so the
tariff quotas themselves didn’t
appear to be creating the
difficulties”.

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• Bad note:

HU complained – steel exports to EU can’t

developed
Because too strict tariff quotas
But EU rep – quotas underused by HU a lot
So quotas not prob.

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• Good note: (diagonal layout)

HU
steel export to EU
not develop
because strict quota
but EU point out
quota

underused by HU

so quota no problem

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2. Left-hand margin:
Links should be noted on the
left-hand margin so that they
are easy to find and not
confused with ideas. So leave
about 1-2 cm left-hand margin
for links.

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• Example 15b: Good note: (left-hand
margin)

.............. HU steel export to EU

.............. Not develop
Because Strict quota
But EU point out
.............. Quota underused by HU
So Quota no problem

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3. Vertical list:
List should be noted vertically.
E.g. “Western Turkey has suffered a
series of natural catastrophes, violent
winter storms, flooding and
earthquakes”.
Note:
W.TY
suffered
catas.: storms
floods
earthquakes
84
E.g. “European Turkey, north-east
Greece and southern Bulgaria have
all suffered from natural calamities”
Note: Eur. TY
NE Greece
S Bulg.
suffered
natural
calamities
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 4. If something is missing in notes:

- Mark the page with the missing

information with a pen.
- Mark the place of missing
information with a big cross to put
the questions quickly to speaker
without keeping the audience
waiting.
86
 3.4. Abbreviations and symbols (A&S)

1. Advantages:
- Help save time in taking notes and
increase the efficiency of note-taking.
- Help avoid word-for-word translation
because symbols represent an idea
rather than words.

87
2. Principles:
- A&S is a means to an end, not an
end in itself.
- With a complex, abstract A&S
system, we will have difficulty in
listening and analyzing as we
concentrate too hard on how to
transform the speaker’s words
into A&S and then on reading
back their notes.
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- Symbols and abb. should
be designed for common
words: country names,
usual verbs, nouns, links,
verb tenses, etc.

89
3.5. The language in which to note

• Advantages of noting in source

language:
- Interpreter is not held up by
translation while taking notes.

- Better guarantee of having a full

set of notes.

90
• Some cultural words and
concepts have no equivalents
and need long explanation so
noting in source language
would be more efficient.

91
• Noting in source language has
the following disadvantages:

- Temptation of noting words, not

ideas.
- Interpreter becomes lazy,
following the speaker passively.
- Difficult to reconstruct the speech.

92
* Notingin target language or
source language is not
important provided that
notes are useful for the
interpreter. A mixture of
notes can also be possible.

93
 3.6. When to note?
• Interpreters are tempted to take
notes as quickly as possible but
they should note ideas, not words
so they should wait until they
have understood a complete idea
before noting it. But do it as
quickly as possible.

94
 3.7. How to read back notes?

• Don’t look too much at the

notes and not enough at the
audience. Never let the
audience know that you are
reading your notes.

95
• Interpreters, like public
speakers must learn the art of
glancing down at their notes to
remind them of what they are
going to say next and then
delivering that part of the text
while looking at the audience.

96
• So the clearer the notes, both
in content and layout, the
easier this will be.

97
• This technique is the same as a
pianist reading music. While
playing their eyes are ahead of
their fingers, so the interpreter
while talking to the audience is
reading ahead
3.7. How to preparing
read back notes? for the

next passage, to provide a

smooth, uninterrupted, efficient
interpretation.

98
 4. Simultaneous interpreting
4.1. Features

• Consecutive interpreting (CI)

and simultaneous interpreting
(SI) are similar in the skills of
listening, understanding,
analyzing and re-expressing.

99
• It is easy for S interpreters to feel
that they are separated from the
meeting in a sound-proof glass
booth, to forget that they are part
of the meeting. It is important to
avoid this trap, to try to sense the
atmosphere of the meeting, watch
the body language of the speaker
and pick up any non-verbal
information they deliver.
100
• S interpreter should maintain
eye contact as much as
possible with delegates and
even use gestures in the
booth, even though nobody is
watching these gestures.

101
• The fundamental differences
between CI and SI is that in CI
interpreters listen first, then
speak. In SI they have to listen
and speak at the same time
which is an unnatural activity
and has to be practiced.
102
• In CI interpreters begin
speaking after they have heard
the whole speech and know
where they are going. Unclear
points or unknown words may
become clear in the overall
context of a speech.
103
• In SI, interpreters do not know
where the speaker is going,
i.e. they don’t know how an
individual sentence will
continue and do not know
where the speech as a whole
is going.
104
 4. Simultaneous interpreting
4.2. How to overcome difficulties
4.2.1. Use of equipment

• SI’s equipment often

includes: a set of headphones
and a microphone.
• Interpreters should wear the
headphones so as to listen
both to the speaker and
themselves.
105
• There are 2 options:
1. Wear both earphones, half on
half off.
2. Wear one earphone only. Very
often, right-handed interpreters
use left ear to listen to the
speaker and right ear to listen to
themselves.
106
 4. Simultaneous interpreting
4.2. How to overcome difficulties
4.2.1. Use of equipment

• Keep the volume as low as

possible. If the volume is too high
interpreters tend to speak too
loudly hindering the listening
process and it is unpleasant for
delegates to hear the interpreters
shouting at them for several
hours.
107
• The level of interpreter’s voice
should remain fairly constant.
Sit directly in front of the
microphone at a constant
distance (30 cm) from it
avoiding major movements.
108
• If the working conditions are so bad
that interpreters can’t perform their
functions correctly, e.g. bad sound
effect, they should inform meeting
organizers and cease work, offer CI
instead or wait for the necessary
arrangements to be made. Never
attempt to interpret what you have not
heard clearly.
109
 4. Simultaneous interpreting
4.2. How to overcome difficulties
4.2.2. Splitting attention
• S interpreters have to listen and speak at the
same time so if they do not monitor their own
output they can be ungrammatical,
pronounce words incorrectly, forget words or
contradict themselves in 2 successive
sentences (e.g. by forgetting the word ‘not’ in
one of them). So it’s necessary to monitor
yourselves and adjust the output, listen
attentively to the speaker and critically to
yourselves.
110
• Concentrate at maximum level,
don’t let yourselves distracted by
such externalities as the
speaker’s accent, gestures,
appearance or visual details in
the room, the weather outside,
people passing by and other
unrelated things.
111
• Interpreters may come across
a word they don’t know or they
know but are not sure how to
translate in target language,
they must ignore the word and
get on with interpreting the
overall sense of the speaker’s
sentence.
112
• If a word is known but there
are several options in target
language, interpreters must
make quick decisions and go
clearly for one option without
getting hung up on the word.
113
• Another distraction for interpreters
comes from the feeling that they
have missed something or wrongly
interpreted something. Don’t think
back over what has already
happened and keep worrying
about it. That will reduce the I’s
level of concentration on the job.
114
• To sum up, splitting attention
is an unnatural activity that
must be practiced like playing
the piano. The pianist has to
learn to play with the right
hand, then with the left hand,
then coordinate both. This is
similar to the work of a SI.
115
 4. Simultaneous interpreting
4.2. How to overcome difficulties
4.2.3. Listening to oneself

• When critically listening to

themselves, interpreters must
check to make sure the
interpretation is correct,
complete, grammatical, and
makes sense.
116
• However long and complex
sentences of the speaker may
be, interpreters should use
short, simple sentences in
target language. However,
don’t sound too childish.
• Never say anything that is
nonsense or meaningless.
117
• Interpreters must always finish their
sentences. The most annoying thing
for delegates is to be left hanging in
the air by interpreters. Delegates may
fail to notice omissions and errors and
forgive interpreters but they will not
do the same if they hear unfinished
sentences, then they will lose their
confidence in the interpreter totally.
e.g. “The increase in tax on these
products over the last 5 years has
meant that... (silence)”
118
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.1. When to start speaking?
• Try to begin speaking as soon as
possible because if interpreters say
nothing in the first few seconds,
delegates may become nervous, turn
round and make signs at the
interpreter’s booth, interpreters must
therefore make at least some sounds,
even though just some polite
expressions like: “Thank you,
chairman”. 119
• Interpreters must be able to
express something meaningful
if they are to open their mouth.
This means that they must
have understood in the source
language some meaningful
notion to put into the target
language.
120
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.2. Reformulation
• Reformulation means long,
complicated sentences are to be
broken down into a series of
easier, shorter ones. Relative and
subordinate clauses can be shifted
around, active clauses changed
into passive ones and so on.
121
• Interpreters’ job is to convey
the speaker’s meaning as
faithfully as possible. The most
faithful interpretation will be
the transformation respecting
the speaker’s intended
meaning.
122
• To respect the meaning,
interpreters neither necessarily
have to copy the exact words of the
speaker, nor the order in which the
speaker says them. Reformulation
is the tool enabling interpreters to
deal with all kinds of difficulties
while remaining as true as possible
to the speaker.
123
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.3. The salami technique

• Speakers may use long,

complicated sentences and
interpreters must divide up the
speaker’s sentences into a
number of short, self-contained
ones and then link them
appropriately.
124
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.4. Simplification
In two cases:
1. The speech may be so technical
that interpreters, despite their
effort to prepare for terminology,
cannot render all of the technical
details. So interpreters must at
least try to save the essentials
by simplification.
125
• The speech may be so
complicated that the audience
can become confused by a
faithful rendering. Interpreters
must skip confusing details to
make the speech simpler and
therefore clearer.
126
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.5. Generalization
• Some speakers speak very fast, so
save time, a number of specific terms
can be expressed using one general
term.
e.g. “People take it for granted now to
have a fridge, a freezer, a
dishwasher, a washing machine, a
cooker and a vacuum cleaner”.
- All household electrical appliances.
127
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.6. Omissions
• When neither simplification and
generalization can help, it is better to
omit things. In this case, interpreters
must analyze the speech so that they
keep the essential elements and miss
out only what is illustrative or
accessory. This technique can also
be used to deal with fast speakers.
128
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.7. Summarizing
• Interpreters may wish to summarize
what a speaker has already said and
what they themselves have interpreted
if they feel the audience may have
failed to grasp the point. This summary
is not intended to replace the full text
but to add to it to clarify what is unclear
because of the speaker.
129
 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.8. Explanation
• Interpreters may be faced with
notions or cultural concepts that
have no direct equivalents in the
target language, so it is ideally
that interpreters explain them to
the audience.
e.g. “blue chip bond”
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 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.9. Anticipation

• Usually interpreters must

begin a sentence without
knowing exactly where that
sentence is going. To alleviate
this difficulty, interpreters must
learn to anticipate.
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 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.10. Dealing with mistakes

• Interpreters may mishear a word

or not hear a word at all,
misunderstand a word or phrase,
miss a logical link, interpret
incorrectly, make a slip of the
tongue, etc. There are 3
scenarios:
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1. Themistake has no or little
consequence on the way the
meeting proceeds and nobody
has noticed, interpreters
should not make corrections
and should just pass it over in
silence.

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2. The mistake is significant and known
to the audience, e.g. a wrong
reference page number, logically
inconsistent and technically
impossible sentences. In this case it
is better to correct the mistake quickly
with an apology as if it’s just a normal
slip of the tongue. E.g. “Sorry, page
24, not 42”.

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3. The mistake is a clear material one
that is important and the audience
does not realize it. In this case
interpreters must swallow their pride
and correct the point as clearly as
possible. It is totally unethical for an
interpreter to ignore a material
mistake just to avoid the
embarrassment of admitting it.

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 4.3. The technique of simultaneous
interpreting
4.3.11. What if speaker’s wrong?

1. If the mistake is just the speaker’s

slip of the tongue. Correct it for the
speaker.
2. If it is the speaker’s clear mistake
and the interpreter knows the
correct version, interpret faithfully
by saying: “The speaker says... But
I think he means...”.
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• If it is the speaker’s clear
mistake and the interpreter
doesn’t know the correct
version, interpret faithfully by
saying: “The speaker says
that...”.
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 Thank you

For your attention!

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