Ans.

1.23 * (sqrt[75,000])
1.23 * 273.86 = 336.86 nm
Factors affecting
radar detection
Effect of precipitation
In the preceding sections, the strength of the
response, the extent of scattering and the amount
of attenuation to be expected from precipitation in
general have been considered in terms of the
physical characteristics that affect them. Such
characteristics will vary with precipitation type and
it is therefore appropriate to discuss the effects in
terms of various forms in which the precipitation may
be manifest.
rain
The droplet size cannot exceed a diameter of about
5.5mm because at this limit the surface tension which
holds the water in droplet form is overcome and the
droplet subdivides.
Large droplets tend to be found in tropical
rainstorms and in general in the rain associated with
vigorous convection such as occurs for example at and
after the passage of a cold front. In such cases the
droplet size is an appreciable proportion of the X-band
wavelength, very strong clutter echoes will be
produced and there will be serious loss of energy due
to scattering and absorption. The detection ranges of
strongly responding targets within the rain area will be
reduced and their echoes may be severely masked by
saturation within the receiver.
 As the droplet size is a much smaller proportion of
the 10 cm wavelength, and bearing in mind the square
law relationship it is evident that the problems will
be significantly by the selection of S-band under
such circumstances.
Drizzle is a form of light rain characterized by low
rainfall rate and small droplet size of less than
about 0.25mm and as a consequence is unlikely to
cause serious problems other than in the case of
very weak targets. However, the higher relative
humidity normally associated with drizzle can result
in greater absorption.
Clouds
The water droplets which form clouds are too small
(less than 0.1 mm) to produce detectable responses even
at X-band. However, if there is rain or other precipitation
within the cloud it may well be detected.

Fog
Because of the very small particle size and density it is
most unlikely that fog and mist will return detectable
echoes. In most circumstances attenuation results in
only a slight reduction in maximum radar detection
range. However, in the special case of the intense fogs
which arise in polar regions a significant reduction in
detection range may occur.
Smog is an acronym of smoke and fog and describes the
effect of the condensation of water droplets on the
dirt particles in areas of industrial smoke. It is likely to
produce a somewhat higher degree of attenuation than a
clean sea fog.
Snow
When precipitation rates are compared, snowfall
rates are in general less than rainfall rates. If this
is considered in parallel with the lesser response
of ice, it is evident that the echoes from snow are
likely to be less troublesome than those from rain.
Sleet describes the condition in which the snow is
partially melted and the response will tend toward
that of water. The attenuation produced by snow is
similarly less than in the case of rain.
The fact that snow reflects radar energy less
effectively than rain may be considered to be
fortunate but it must be borne in mind that where
snow lies on the surface of wanted targets its
relatively poorer reflecting property and its albeit
limited absorption characteristic may reduce the
detection range of good targets such as land and
also render undetectable poor targets such as
growlers
Hail
Hail is essentially composed of frozen raindrops.
Ice reflects radar energy less effectively than
water and hence, size for size, hailstones will
produce a lesser response than raindrops. Melting
on the surface of the stone will improve its
response toward that of water.
In general, the precipitation rates associated with
hail are lower than those experienced with rain and
so clutter and attenuation from hail are likely to
prove less troublesome than those from rain.
Blind and shadow sectors
Blind and shadow sectors occur when the radiation
from the aerial is intercepted by obstructions (for
example, masts, funnel etc.) on board the vessel. It can
be seen that it is analogous to that of optical shadows
cast when a source of light is obstructed. In the
interests of rigour it has to be said that because of the
longer wavelength, radar waves experience greater
diffraction than light waves. Diffraction is the term
used to describe the effect when radiation passes close
to a solid object which gives it a slight tendency to bend
round the object.
In this respect the use of S-band will tend to reduce
the shadow extent when compared with X-band
transmissions.
Relationship to antenna
location
The IMO Performance Standards require that the
aerial system be installed in such a manner that the
efficiency of the display is not impaired by the close
proximity of the aerial to other objects.
It might appear at first sight that the best
approach is to locate the aerial unit sufficiently
high as to be above all obstructions. This may be
possible on some ships but there are also
disadvantages for excessive aerial height. Although
it may not be possible to use the vertical location of
the aerial to eliminate blind and shadow sectors,
suitable attention to the horizontal siting may
reduce the seriousness of their effects.
These can be relocated astern or on one side, which
could have an advantage in improving detection of
targets which are often the ‘stand-on’ vessels in
collision encounters. In considering these
solutions it should be remembered that, although in
clear weather the collision regulations allocate
responsibilities to vessels which relate to the
crossing and overtaking situations, when vessels
are not in sight of one another the give way/stand
on allocation of responsibilities does not apply.
Both vessels have a responsibility to take action to
avoid a close-quarters situation.
FACTORS EXTERNAL TO THE RADAR
SETTING AFFECTING DETECTION
5. Characteristics of Targets
6. Clutter
 FACTORS AFFECTING RADAR
INTERPRETATION
• Radar’s value as a navigational aid depends on the
navigator’s understanding its characteristics and limitations.
Whether measuring the range to a single reflective object or
trying to discern a shoreline lost amid severe clutter,
knowledge of the characteristics of the individual radar
used are crucial
 HOW CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR
TARGETS INFLUENCE DETECTION
RANGE
• Resolution In Range
It is related primarily to pulse length. The minimum distance between
targets that can be distinguished as separate is half the pulse length. This (half
the pulse length) is the apparent depth or thickness of a target presenting a
flat perpendicular surface to the radar beam. Thus, several ships close
together may appear as an island. Echoes from a number of small boats, piles,
breakers, or even large ships close to the shore may blend with echoes from
the shore, resulting in an incorrect indication of the position and shape of the
shoreline.
 HOW CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR
TARGETS INFLUENCE DETECTION
RANGE
• Resolution in Bearing
Echoes from two or more targets close together at the same range
may merge to form a single, wider echo. The ability to separate targets close
together at the same range is called resolution in bearing.
 HOW CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR
TARGETS INFLUENCE DETECTION
RANGE
• Height of Antenna and Target
If the radar horizon is between the transmitting vessel and the target,
the lower part of the target will not be visible. A large vessel may appear as a
small craft, or a shoreline may appear at some distance inland.
 HOW CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR
TARGETS INFLUENCE DETECTION
RANGE
• Reflecting Quality and Aspect of Target
Echoes from several targets of the same size may be quite different in
appearance. A metal surface reflects radio waves more strongly than a
wooden surface. A surface perpendicular to the beam returns a stronger
echo than a non perpendicular one. A vessel seen broadside returns a
stronger echo than one heading directly toward or away. Some surfaces
absorb most radar energy rather that reflecting it.
 HOW CLUTTER MAY MASK RADAR
TARGETS
• Frequency
As frequency increases, reflections occur from smaller targets.
Atmospheric noise, sea return, and precipitation complicate radar
interpretation by producing clutter.
Clutter is usually strongest near the vessel. Strong echoes can
sometimes be detected by reducing receiver gain to eliminate weaker signals.
By watching the repeater during several rotations of the antenna, the
operator can often discriminate between clutter and a target even when the
signal strengths from clutter and the target are equal. At each rotation, the
signals from targets will remain relatively stationary on the display while those
caused by clutter will appear at different locations on each sweep.
 FACTORS CA U S ING
FAULT Y
INTERPRETATION OF
THE RA D A R P ICTU RE
GROUP 2
INTERPRETATION OF RADAR PICTURE

• The radar picture is a plain picture of the ships

surroundings. Only long training and
experience can teach you to interpret the
radar picture quickly and accurately as well as
to identify different targets.
CA USE AND EFFECT
OF INTERFERENCE
INTERFERENCE

• Interference is unwanted radio energy

• Interference is both avoidable and controllable through
sound spectrum engineering and
management procedures.
•
CAUSE OF INTERFERENCE
• Large birds • Waves and sea spray
• Flocks of smaller birds • Masts
• Road traffic • Buildings
• Trains and ships • Wind Turbines
• Swarms of insects • Clutter
• Rain and storms
OTHER TYPES OF RADAR
INTERFERENCE
• Desensitization – where a radar becomes less sensitive to
smaller targets at particular locations.
• Shadowing – where the shadow cast by a building or
structure prevents detection of a target in the shadow
zone behind it.
• Reflections – where a building or structure reflects a radar
signal so that it appears in the wrong place.
EFFECTS OF THE INTERFERENCE
• Target loss
• results in the formation of what are called radar
holes in the coverage.
• Loss of radar energy due to atmospheric absorption
CA USE AND EFFECT
OF SIDE ECHOES

GROUP 2
SIDE ECHOES

Are associated with target that are at

close range, and result from the radar
beam being surrounded by smaller
beams or lobes.
CAUSE OF SIDE
ECHOES
Side lobes is the cause
of side echoes.
Side lobes are the lobes
of the far field radiation
pattern of an antenna
or other radiation
source, that are not the
main lobe.
EFFECT OF THE
SIDE ECHOES

The effect of the

side echoes will
only be observed
at short range.
Cause false
targets and/or
"noise" on your
display.
CAU S E A ND EFFECT
OF SECOND TRACE
ECHO (MULTIPLE
TRA CE ECHOES )
GROUP 2
MULTIPLE TRACE ECHOES
• Are echoes received from a contact at an actual
range greater than a radar range setting.
CAUSE
• May occur when a strong echo is received from
another ship at close range.
• Abnormal atmospheric conditions, or conditions
under which super refraction or ducting is present.
• Electronic interference effects
EFFECTS

• Can be recognized through changes in their

positions on the display when changing range, scales
with different pulse repetition rates (PPR), their hazy,
streaky, or distorted shapes, and their erratic
movements or plotting.
 THE CA U S E A ND
EFFECT OF IND IRECT
ECHOES.
GROUP 2
INDIRECT ECHOES
•This echoes returned from either a
passing ship or returned from a
reflecting surface on your own ship.
CAUSE:
• Indirect or false echoes are caused by reflection of
the main lobe of the radar beam off ship’s structures
such as stacks and kingposts. When such reflection
does occur, the echo will return from a legitimate
radar contact to the antenna by the same indirect
path.
EFFECT
• They are received on substantially constant bearings
although the true bearing of the radar contact may
change appreciably.
• They appear at the same ranges as the
corresponding direct echoes.
• When plotted, their movements are usually
abnormal.
 THE CA U S E A ND
EFFECT OF MU LTIPLE
ECHOES.
GROUP 2
MULTIPLE ECHOES
•Multiple echoes may occur when a
strong echo is received from another
ship at close range.
CAUSE

• Multiple echoes arises due to the multiple reflection

of sound. Multiple echoes of a single sound can be
produced by the process of reverberation.
• If a same sound strikes solid surfaces multiple times,
it may cause multiple reflection of the sound
EFFECT

• This can be heard when the reflection returns with

sufficient magnitude and delay to be perceived
distinctly. When sound, or the echo itself, is
reflected multiple times from multiple surfaces,
the echo is characterized as a reverberation.
 PERFORMANCE
S TA N D A R D S F O R R A D A R
EQUIPMENT ACCORDING
RESOLUTION A 47 7(XII)
GROUP 2
LIST OF PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
CONTAINED IN RES A 477 (XII)
•Resolution A 477 (XII)- Resolution A
477 (XII) was adopted on 19th October
1981.
 WHAT DOES RES 477 (XII) CONTAINS?
THE ASSEMBLY

RECALLING Article 16(i) of the Convention on the Inter-Governmental Maritime

Consultative Organization,

BEARING IN MIND the provisions of Regulation 12, Chapter V, of the International

Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, and the proposed amendments to that
regulation,

RECALLING ALSO resolution A.222(VII) by which it adopted performance standards

for radar equipment,

RECOGNIZING the desirability of making such performance standards compatible with

the Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids(ARPA) (resolution A.
422(XI)) and with resolution A.423(XI) on radar beacons and transponders,
 RESOLUTION A 477 (XII)
1. ADOPTS the Recommendation on Performance Standards for
Radar Equipment set out in the Annex to the present resolution;
2. RECOMMENDS Member Governments to ensure that:

(a.) Radar equipment installed on or after 1 September 1984 conforms

to performance standards not inferior to those specified in the Annex
to the present resolution;

(b.) Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984 conforms at

least to the performance standards set out in resolution A.222(VII).
LISTS OF PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS FOR RADAR
EQUIPMENT

RES. A 477 (XII)

 WHAT ARE IMO PERFORMANCE
STANDARD FOR RADAR?
These Performance Standards should apply to all ship borne radar installations, used in any configuration,
mandated by the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended, independent of the:

Type of ship;
Frequency band in use; and
Type of display,

Providing that no special requirements are specified in below Table and that additional requirements for
specific classes of ships (in accordance with SOLAS chapters V and X) are met.

The radar installation, in addition to meeting the general requirements as set out in resolution A.694(17)*,
should comply with the following performance standards.

Close interaction between different navigational equipment and systems, makes it essential to consider these
standards in association with other relevant IMO standards.
LIST OF PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
FOR RADAR EQUIPMENTS
Application
General
All RADAR installations
Display
 APPLICATION
• 1.1 This Recommendation applies to all ships' radar
equipment installed on or after 1 September 1984 in
compliance with Regulation 12, Chapter V of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea, 1974, as amended.

1.2 Radar equipment installed before 1 September

1984 should comply at least with the performance
standards recommended in resolution A.222(VII).
GENERAL

2. The radar equipment should provide an indication, in

relation to the ship, of the position of other surface craft
and obstructions and of buoys, shorelines and navigational
marks in a manner which will assist in navigation and in
avoiding collision.
 DISPLAY
3.14 Interference
After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy as
prescribed in this Recommendation should be maintained without further
adjustment irrespective of the movement of the ship in the earth's magnetic
field.

3.15 Sea or ground stabilization (true motion display)

3.15.1 Where sea or ground stabilization is provided the accuracy and

discrimination of the display should be at least equivalent to that required by
this Recommendation.

3.15.2 The motion of the trace origin should not, except under manual
override conditions, continue to a point beyond 75 per cent of the radius of
the display. Automatic resetting may be provided.
3.16 .Antenna system
The antenna system should be installed in such a manner that the design
efficiency of the radar system is not substantially impaired.

3.17. Operation with radar beacons

3.17.1 All radars operating in the 3 centimeter band should be capable of

operating in a horizontally polarized mode.

3.17.2 It should be possible to switch off those signal processing facilities which
might prevent a radar beacon from being shown on the radar display.
REQUIRED ACCURACY RANGE AND
BEARING MEASUREMENT
3.4.1 fixed electronic range rings should provide for range
measurements as follows
1. where range scales are provided in accordance with
3.3.2.1, on range scale of between 0.5 and 0.8 nautical miles
at least two range rings should be provided and on each of
the other range scales six range should be provided
 2. where range scales are provided in
accordance with 3.3.2.2, four range rings should be
provided on each of the range scales.
• 3.4.2 a variable electronic range marker should be
provided with a numeric readout of range.
• 3.4.3 the fixed range rings and the variable range
marker should enable the range of an object to be
measured with an error not exceeding 1.5 percent
of the maximum range of the scale in use, or 70
meters, whichever is the greater.
• 3.4.4 it should be possible to vary the brilliance
of the fixed range rings and the variable range
marker and to remove them completely from
the display.
HEAD INDICATOR
• The heading of the ship should indicated by a line on the
display with a maximum error not greater than plus or
minus 1 degree. The thickness of the displayed heading line
should not be greater than 0.5 degrees.
• Provision should be made to switch off the heading
indicator by a device which cannot be left in the “heading
marker off” position.
BEARING MEASUREMENT

• Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing

of any object whose echo appears on the display.
• The mean provided for obtaining bearings should enable
the bearing of a target whose echo appears at the edge
of the display measured with an accuracy of plus or
minus 1 degree or better.
DISCRIMINATION
• The equipment should be capable of displaying separate
indications on a range scale of 2 nautical miles or less, two
small similar targets at a range of between 50 per cent and
100 per cent of the range scale in use, and on the same
azimuth, separated by not more than 50 meters in range.
• The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate
indications two small similar targets both situated at the
same range between 50 per cent and 100 per cent of the
1.5 or 2 mile range scales, and separated by not more than
2.5 degrees in azimuth.