Analysis

• Analysis is understanding and predicting the behaviour of a

physical system.
• In the engineering school we learn how to Analyze the
behaviour of different systems:
– Civil Engineers:
• Analyze Structures
• Fluids and Hydraulic Systems
• Transportation and Traffic systems
• ….
– Mechanical Engineers:
• Analyze Structures and Machines
• Heat transfer and fluids
• ….
– Electrical Engineers:
• Electronic Circuits
• Communication and Microwave systems
• …

1
Modelling
• To Analyze a structure we first need to Model it.
• Usually there are some assumptions that make our
models simpler than the actual structure
• Level of these assumptions and simplifications
depends on the application:
– For a conceptual or basic design, we usually use simplified
models
– Detailed engineering needs a more detailed analysis
– Advanced structures like aircrafts need a very detailed
analysis and simulation

2
Modeling
• What kind of assumptions and simplifications we
usually make?
– Simplifying the Geometry: Structures with complex shapes
are modelled with elements with simpler geometries
– Simplifying the Loading: Loads applied to the structures are
random in nature: when designing a residential house we
don’t exactly know where they’re going to put the piano or
how many guests they’re going to invite to their parties!
– Simplifying the Material behaviour:

3
Analysis and Design
• Engineers base their structural design on the
simplified structural analysis
• Safety factors are used to cover the uncertainties,
assumption and simplifications in the analysis
• The more our knowledge about the uncertainties and
the more detailed our analysis, the smaller factor of
safety we need to use:
– The factor of safety we use to design a foundation that deals
with soil is higher than the one used in design of a steel
frame.

4
 Structural Analysis

Actual Structure
Assumptions and
Simplifications
Validation

Model
Verification

Analysis of the Model

Interpretation of Results

5
 Modeling a Truss Bridge

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ecstaticist/3446286013/
• We claim that our model
represents the reality

Courtesy of Evan Leeson

• Assumptions:
– Joints do not transfer
moment
– The connection to the
pedestal acts as a pinned
support
• We need to check how valid
our assumptions are.
• In routine cases, the design
codes give some guides on
how to build our model
• In special situations, the
model needs to be
Validated
6
Verification and Validation
• Verification is to check if the mathematical approach
that is used to formulate and solve the model is
consistent with the model
– Verification is usually performed by checking models
predictions for some simple cases with closed form solutions
and hand calculations.
• Validation on the other hand checks if the model
properly represents the physical reality.
– For Validation, the model predictions are compared with
actual response and behaviour of structure measured from
laboratory or on-site tests.

7
Verification and Validation
• In the example of Bridge Modelling, suppose we have
a computer code that solves the truss problem
• We verify that our code solves the truss problem
properly by comparing its predictions with hand
calculation for some simple cases (virtual testing)
• We validate our model with some tests that are
performed on the actual structure

8
Course Objectives
• This course mainly focuses on “Analysis of the
model”
• We assume that we already have the model and we
want to analyze it
• Although “how to build a model” is as important as
“how to analyse it” but this topic is out of scope of
this course!
• In this course we assume that we have a model that
supposedly represents the physical reality and we’ll
learn how to analyze that model
• Verification and Validation will be briefly discussed in
this course

9
How to Analyze a Structural Model?
• Regardless of the method used in analyzing
the structure, following three fundamental
concepts should be addressed:
– Equilibrium: The equilibrium equation always plays
the key role in Structural Analysis.
– Constitutive Relation: This is related to Material
behaviour. The relation between the forces
(Stresses) applied to the Material and its
deformation (Strain).
– Compatibility: Compatibility expresses the relation
between structural level parameters (such as
displacements) to material level parameters (such
as strain).

10
 The fundamental concepts in an axial
element

Equilibrium: T

åF = 0 Þ -T + N = 0 Þ N = T
x
N
T
Constitutive Law: For linear elastic materials:

  E
Compatibility: Strain is the change in the displacement:

du

dx

11
How to Analyze the Structural Model?
• Now we need to find a solution that satisfies the
equilibrium condition and is consistent with the
constitutive relation and the compatibility.
• Three approaches to solve the problem:
– Strength of Materials Methods (Classical Methods): This is
what we’ve learnt in the 2nd and 3rd year undergrad courses.
– Elasticity Method: Writing the mentioned equations in form of
partial differential equations and trying to find a closed-form
solutions for the problem
– Numerical Methods: Due to complexity of real structural
systems it is impossible to find an exact closed-form
solution. Numerical methods are employed to find
approximate numerical solutions for the structural system.

12
 Why Numerical Methods?

Advanced and
Complex Structures

Aldeadávila Dam
Spain

Courtesy of Eric A Hulteen:

http://web.hulteen.com/eric/portugal_2007.html

13
 Why Numerical Methods?

Advanced and Complex Structures

Boeing 787,
Courtesy of Wikipedia
the Dream Liner http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787

14
Why Numerical Methods?
• The real structural systems that we deal with are too
complex to be analyzed by hand
• It is also impossible to find an Analytical Closed-Form
solution for such problems
• So why don’t we try to find a good numerical
approximate solution:
– Numerical methods provide powerful tools to solve complex
problems
– Fast computers are available to solve the numerical
problems for us
– Numerical approximation can be refined and different levels
of accuracy can be achieved using these methods. A more
accurate solution is costlier though.

15
The Finite Element Method
• The Finite Element Method is the most powerful and
the most popular one among the numerical methods
• First introduced in 1940’s to solve the elasticity
problem in Civil and Aeronautical eng. problems
• NASA developed the first FEM software (NASTRAN)
in 1965

16
Some Commercial FE Software

LS-DYNA

17
Open-Source FE Software

18
Finite Element Method
• FE is being used to solve various engineering
problems:
– Structural and solid mechanics
– Vibration and dynamics
– Heat transfer
– Fluid Mechanics
– Fluid-Structure interaction
– Electromagnetics
• Mathematicians use FE these days as a
numerical tool to solve partial differential
equations

19
FE simulation is cool 

Collision between a truck Courtesy of LSTC, University of George

and a small car Washington and Mr. Rami Mansour, UBC

20
FE simulation is cool 

Courtesy of LSTC and FEA

Airbag Deployment Information Inc.
http://www.feainformation.com/avilib/avi.shtml

21
How does FE work?
• Dividing the structure into smaller pieces (elements)
with simpler geometries
• Then determining how these elements behave
individually
• Assembling the elements together and building the
whole structure
• Solving the system of equations for the structure.

22
Disadvantages of FEM

• A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific

problem.
• There are some errors associated with FE solution
that needs to be understood and may be critical in
some cases.
• Experience and judgment needed in order to
construct a good finite element model.
• Powerful computers and reliable FEM software are
essential.
• Input and output data may be large and tedious to
prepare and interpret.

23
Verification and Validation

• FEM is a very Powerful but Dangerous tool

• One may get completely incorrect results from an FE
simulation that looks OK!
• The user of a FE software should have the basic
knowledge of mechanics and should not deal with the
FE package as a Magic Box!
• The numerical model should be:
– Verified to check if the implementation of the mathematical
model is done correctly
– Validated against experimental data to check if it represents
what’s happening in the real world

24
Course Outline
• Direct Stiffness Method:
– For Bars and Beams that we already know how
they behave
– We’ll learn how to analyze a model consisting of
Axial members and Beams (i.e. Trusses and
Frames) in a systematic way
• The Method of Weighted Residuals
– This is a numerical method to find an approximate
solution for differential equations
– Employing the Weighted Residual Method to solve
axial and beam elements

25
Course Outline, cont’d
• Family of Variational Methods:
– Recalling the Virtual Work Method
– Weak formulation
– Rayleigh-Ritz Method
• Stability Analysis
– Looking at stability issue from Stiffness point of
view
– Energy approach to stability analysis
– P-delta effect
– Eccentric loading and Secant formula
– Geometrical Stiffness

26
Course Outline, cont’d
• The Finite Element Method:
– Discretization
– Shape Functions
– Axial Elements
– Beam Elements
– Numerical integration
– Continuous media
– Triangular elements
– Iso-parametric elements

27
Course Outline, cont’d
• Finite Element of Dynamic Problems:
• Mass Matrix (consistent and lumped)
• Damping
• Eigenvalue problem, natural frequencies and
mode shapes
• Time integration methods (implicit and explicit)
• Verification and Validation
– Verification
• Error sources and error estimation
• Some examples on verification process
– Validation

28
 Example - 1
R Determine the perimeter of the circle, L = 2πR

1. Finite Element Discretization

Element

Number of elements = n
Nodes

2. Element Equation
2
e 
n
R θe
Le  2 R sin  12  e 
Le
29
3. Assembly of Element Equations
Total length = Sum of the length of individual elements

n
   
Ln   Le  nLe  n  2 R sin   
e 1   n 

4. Solution: Convergence

sin x  1
Ln  2 R x
x n

 sin x    cosx  

LimLn   Lim 2 R   Lim  2R 
x 0 
n  n  x  x 0 n   1 
 2R

30
Approximation to 

 n  n sin  / n 

Exact  to 16 places: 3.141592653589793

3.2

2.8

2.6


2.4

2.2

2
1 10 100 1000
Number of Elements, n

31
Example – 2: Determining the area of a
circle
1. Discretization

element element
element element
n6
element element element element
element

element
element element

Finite-element mesh (1) Finite-element mesh (2)

32
 2. Element Formulation

1
Area   Height  Base 
2

R h
h R
2b 2b
 2  2

  
b  R sin h  R cos b  R tan
2 2 2
33
 Finite-element mesh (1) Finite-element mesh (2)

1 R 2
2  2 
a  sin a  R tan
2

2 n n
Element equation

3. Assembly

n n
A  a
1 (1)
i A  2
 a (2)
i
i 1 i 1

1 R 2
2  2 
A  n sin A  nR tan2

2 n n

34
 Error Estimation

Finite-element mesh (1) Finite-element mesh (2)

e1  Areasector  a 1 e2  Areasector  a 2

1 2
Areasec tor  R
2

 1 2    
e1  R   sin
2
 e2  R  tan  
2

n 2 n   n n

35
 Finite-element mesh (1) Finite-element mesh (2)

2   2   
2 n  R  n tan   
2
E   R    sin E
1
  n 
 2 n 
 2
R  A
2 1  A   R2
4. Solution: Convergence
tan  y
2 sin  x
 2
1
lim A  lim R lim A  lim R 2
n  y 0 y
n  x 0 x
2 cos  x y
2
sec
 lim  R  lim  R 2
x 0 1 y 0 1
  R2   R2
36
Convergence of the finite-element solutions to the exact one A0   R
2

37
 One can discretize the domain into a mesh of more than
one type of element. If more than one type of element is
used in the representation of the domain, one of each kind
should be isolated and its properties developed.