PHYSICAL

GROUP VI
– WEIGHING
– GRINDING
– DRYING
– CENTRIFUGATION
– DISTILLATION
– FILTRATION
– CHROMATOGRAPHY
– PH MEASUREMENT
WEIGHING
WEIGHING

- Weighing is to find out how many something of someone.

- Accuracy is an important factor in process weighing system.
- Repeatability the measure of agreement between the successive
measurements
• INSTRUMENTS
There are many kinds of weighing scale some of them are:
1.) Kitchen scales - for weighing ingredients when your working
2.) Bathroom scales - for weighing yourself at home
3.) Postal scales - the cost of sending a better or parcel depends on its size or weight
4.) Luggage scales - used in airports. Heavy items of luggage will be weighed on scales
at the airport. Weigh will be shown in digital format.
GRINDING
GRINDING

- Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel or grinder

as the cutting tool. Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-
cutting process. Grinding is very common in mineral processing plants and the
cement industry.
- Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality and
high accuracy of shape and dimension.
MACHINES USED FOR
GRINDING
Many machines are used for grinding, including:
– Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)
– Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
– Various industrial machines known as grinding machines
– Bench grinders often found in residential garages and basements
PROPERTY CHANGES DUE TO
GRINDING
Property changes due to grinding include:
– Martensitic layer may form on the part, which leads to reduced material
strength from microcracks
– Possible loss of magnetic properties on ferromagnetic materials
– Increased susceptibility to corrosion because of high surface stress
– Grinding machines remove material from the work piece by abrasion, which can
generate substantial amounts of heat. To cool the work piece so that it does not
overheat and go outside its tolerance, grinding machines incorporate a coolant.
DRYING
DRYING

Is the process of using heat to remove a liquid from a material that contains the
liquid. The material can be wet solid or a liquid solution of a solid dissolved in a
liquid. The term drying is also applied to the removal of water vapor from a gas or
mixture of a gases. In scientific terms , drying is described as a mass transfer
process. The process that leads to extreme drying is called desication.
EXAMPLES:

– Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried (dehydrated

or desiccated).
-- Heated air drying a heated stream of air(or other gases)heats the material by
convection and carries away the vapor as humidity
CENTRIFUGATION

– Is the process where mixture is separated through spinning. It is used to

separate skim milk from whole milk water from your clothes, and blood cells
from your blood plasma. Although centrifugation is primarily used to separate
mixtures, it is also used to test the effects of gravity on people on objects.
– The particles are suspended in a liquid medium and placed in a centrifuge tube.
The tube is then placed in the Rotor and spun at a define speed.
– Separation through sedimentation could be done naturally with the earth
gravity, nevertheless, it would take ages. Centrifugation is making that natural
process much faster
Centrifugal force

A rotation of the rotor about a central axis generates a centrifugal force upon
the particles in the suspension.
A fictitious force peculiar to a particle moving on a circular path, that has the
same magnitude and dimension as the force that keeps the particle on its circular
path( the centripetal forced) but points in the opposites direction.
FACTORS HAVE AN INFLUENCE
ON CENTRIFUGATION

– DENSITY OF BOTH SAMPLES AND SOLUTION

– TEMPERATURE/VISCOSITY
– DISTANCE OF PARTICLES DISPLACEMENT
– ROTATION SPEED
CENTRIFUGE

A device that can rapidly spin, to speed up this process, Imagine we put the
mixture into test tubes, and those tubes into the centrifuge. The centrifuge holds
the top of the tubes, and the bottom is allowed to angle out. As it spins, the larger
particles would get flung out further, and smaller particles would stay close to the
center.
The centrifuge is spinning, but the particles in the mixture want to keep going
straight, so they get flung outward. The larger the particle, the farther it gets flung.
It uses rotor. In biology, the particles are usually cells, subcellular organelles, or
large molecules ,all of which are referred to here as particles.
2 types of centrifuge procedures

PREPERATIVE
The purpose of which is to isolate specific particles,

ANALYTICAL
Involves measuring physical properties of the sedimenting particles
– As a rotor spins in a centrifuge. A centrifugal force is applied to each particle in
the sample; the particle will sediment at the rate that is proportional to the
centrifugal force applied to it. The viscosity of the sample solution and the
physical properties of the particles also affect the sedimentation rate of each
particle.
– At a fixed centrifugal force and liquid viscosity, the sedimentation rate of a
particle is proportional to its size and to the difference between the particle
density and the density of the solution.
 Centrifuge sedimentation principle
In a solution, particles whose density is higher than that of the
solvent sink (sediment), and particles that are lighter than it
float to the top.

The greater the difference in density, the faster they move. If

there is no difference in density (isopyknic conditions), the
particles stay steady.
.
Sedimentation principles
To take advantage of even tiny differences in density to
separate various particles in a solution, gravity can be replaced
with the much more powerful “centrifugal force” provided by a
centrifuge.
DISTILLATION
DISTILLATION

– Distillation is a widely used method for separating mixtures based on

differences in the conditions required to change the phase of components of
the mixture. To separate a mixture of liquids, the liquid can be heated to force
components, which have different boiling points, into the gas phase. The gas is
then condensed back into liquid form and collected. Repeating the process on
the collected liquid to improve the purity of the product is called double
distillation. Although the term is most commonly applied to liquids, the reverse
process can be used to separate gases by liquefying components using changes
in temperature and/or pressure.
TYPES OF DISTILLATION

Types of Distillation
– Simple distillation
– Fractional distillation
– Steam distillation
– Vacuum distillation
– Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
– Short path distillation
– Zone distillation
SIMPLE DISTILLATION
– The vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the
distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of
the vapors at the given temperature and pressure.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
It is used in order to separate the components by repeated vaporization-
condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by
successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.
STEAM DISTILLATION
is a method of distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive. The temperature of
the steam is easier to control than the surface of a heating element. This allows a
high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature.
VACUUM DISTILLATION
Some compounds have very high boiling points. Sometimes its easier to lower the
pressure than to reach its high boiling point. This technique is referred to as
vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the
rotary evaporator.
AIR- SENSITIVE VACUUM DISTILLATION
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. For these
compounds, a simple vacuum distillation system can be used. Wherein the vacuum
is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete.
SHORT PATH DISTILLATION
It is a distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance,
often only a few centimeters. This technique is normally done at reduced pressure
allowing a lower operating temperature range.
– Short Path Distillation:
– It is a distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance,
often only a few centimeters. This technique is normally done at reduced
pressure allowing a lower operating temperature range.
– Zone Distillation:
– It is a distillation process in a long container with a special arrangement. With
the partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of
vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area.
Example of simple distillation

– Water Distillation. One example of a simple distillation mixture is separating

saltwater to create pure water and salt. During the distillation process, the
water starts to evaporate, and that vapor then cools down to form pure water.
The pure water is collected in a second container.
Example of Fractional
Distillation
For example, fractional distillation is used in oil refineries to separate crude oil
into useful substances (or fractions) having different hydrocarbons of different
boiling points. The crude oil fractions with higher boiling points: have more carbon
atoms
Example of Steam Distillation

– If water is used as one of the immiscible liquids the method is called steam
distillation. It is also used for purifying liquids which decompose at their normal
boiling points. Steam distillation is used for separating organic compounds from
plant parts. e.g. Lemon grass oil, Eucalyptus oil etc.
FILTRATION

– Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter
medium that allows the fluid to pass, but not the solid. The term "filtration"
applies whether the filter is mechanical, biological, or physical. The fluid that
passes through the filter is called the filtrate. The filter medium may be a
surface filter, which is a solid that traps solid particles, or a depth filter, which is
a bed of material that traps the solid.
– Filtration is typically an imperfect process. Some fluid remains on the feed side
of the filter or embedded in the filter media and some small solid particulates
find their way through the filter. As a chemistry and engineering technique,
there is always some lost product, whether it's the liquid or solid being
collected.
 EXAMPLES OF FILTRATION

– Brewing coffee involves passing hot water through the ground coffee and a filter.
The liquid coffee is the filtrate. Steeping tea is much the same, whether you use a
tea bag (paper filter) or tea ball (usually a metal filter).
– The kidneys are an example of a biological filter. Blood is filtered by the glomerulus.
Essential molecules are reabsorbed back into the blood.
– Air conditioners and many vacuum cleaners use HEPA filters to remove dust and
pollen from the air.
– Many aquariums use filters that contain fibers that capture particulates.
– Belt filters recover precious metals during mining.
– Water in an aquifer is relatively pure because it has been filtered through sand and
permeable rock in the ground.
FILTRATION METHODS

– General Filtration: The most basic form of filtration is using gravity to filter a mixture. The mixture is poured from
above onto a filter medium (e.g., filter paper) and gravity pulls the liquid down. The solid is left on the filter, while
the liquid flows below it.
– Vacuum Filtration: A Büchner flask and hose are used to pull a vacuum to suck the fluid through the filter (usually
with the aid of gravity). This greatly speeds the separation and can be used to dry the solid. A related technique
uses a pump to form a pressure difference on both sides of the filter. Pump filters do not need to be vertical
because gravity is not the source of the pressure difference on the sides of the filter.
– Cold Filtration: Cold filtration is used to quickly cool a solution, prompting the formation of small crystals. This is a
method used when the solid is initially dissolved. A common method is to place the container with the solution in
an ice bath prior to filtration.
– Hot Filtration: In hot filtration, the solution, filter, and funnel are heated to minimize crystal formation during
filtration. Stemless funnels are useful because there is less surface area for crystal growth. This method is used
when crystals would clog the funnel or prevent crystallization of the second component in a mixture.
ALTERNATIVES

– In some situations, there are better separation methods than filtration. For
example, for very small samples where it's important to collect the filtrate, the
filter medium may soak up too much of the fluid. In other cases, too much of
the solid becomes trapped in the filter medium. Two other processes that can
be used to separate solids from fluids are decantation and centrifugation.
Centrifugation involves spinning a sample, forcing the heavier solid to the
bottom of a container. Decantation can be used following centrifugation or on
its own. In decantation, the fluid is siphoned or poured off of the solid after it
has fallen out of solution.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
CHROMATOGRAPHY

– ‘Chromatography’ is an analytical technique commonly used for separating a

mixture of chemical substances into its individual components, so that the
individual components can be thoroughly analyzed.
– The essential thing about chromatography is that we have some mixture in
one state of matter (something like a gas or liquid) moving over the surface of
something else in another state of matter (a liquid or solid) that stays where it
is. The moving substance is called the mobile phase and the substance that
stays put is the stationary phase. As the mobile phase moves, it separates out
into its components on the stationary phase. We can then identify them one by
one.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

– This is the "spot of ink on paper" experiment you often do in school (also
the effect we described at the start when you get your papers wet).
Typically you put a spot of ink near one edge of some filter paper and
then hang the paper vertically with its lower edge (nearest the spot)
dipped in a solvent such as alcohol or water. Capillary action makes the
solvent travel up the paper, where it meets and dissolves the ink. The
dissolved ink (the mobile phase) slowly travels up the paper (the
stationary phase) and separates out into different components.
COLUMN
CHROMATOGRAPHY
– Instead of paper, the stationary phase is a vertical glass jar (the column) packed
with a highly adsorbent solid, such as crystals of silica or silica gel, or a solid
coated with a liquid. The mobile phase drips (or is pumped at high pressure)
through the column and splits into its components, which are then removed
and analyzed
TYPES OF COLUMN
CHROMATOGRAPHY

– Liquid-column chromatography, where the mixture being studied is placed at

one end of the column and an extra added substance called
an eluant (sometimes spelled eluent) is poured in to help it travel through.
– Thin-film chromatography is a variation of this technique in which the "column"
is actually a film of glass, plastic, or metal coated with a very thin layer of
adsorbent material.
– High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), where the mixture is forced
through the column at high pressure (roughly 400 times atmospheric pressure).
This is faster, more precise, and more sensitive.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

– Gas chromatography is a largely automated type of chemical analysis you can

do with a sophisticated piece of laboratory equipment called, not surprisingly, a
gas chromatograph machine.
– First, a tiny sample of the mixture of substances being studied is placed in a
syringe and injected into the machine. The components of the mixture are
heated and instantly vaporize. Next, we add a carrier (the eluant), which is
simply a neutral gas such as hydrogen or helium, designed to help the gases in
our sample move through the column. In this case, the column is a thin glass or
metal tube usually filled with a liquid that has a high boiling point (or
sometimes a gel or an adsorbent solid).
– As the mixture travels through the column, it's adsorbed and separates out into
its components. Each component emerges in turn from the end of the column
and moves past an electronic detector (sometimes a mass spectrometer), which
identifies it and prints a peak on a chart. The final chart has a series of peaks
that correspond to all the substances in the mixture. Gas chromatography is
sometimes called vapor-phase chromatography (VPC) or gas-liquid partition
chromatography (GLPC).
HOW DOES GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY WORKS
– 1. The eluant (carrier gas) is introduced from a gas cylinder outside the
machine. It's called the carrier because that's exactly what it does—carry the
sample we're studying through the machine. In gas chromatography, the carrier
gas is the mobile phase.
– 2. The rate of flow of the carrier is carefully controlled to give the clearest
separation of the components in the sample.
– 3. The carrier enters the machine through an inlet port/splitter.
– 4. The sample being measured is injected into the carrier gas using
a syringe and instantly vaporizes (turns into gas form).
– 5. The gases that make up the sample separate out as they move along
the column (orange), which contains the stationary phase (typically, it's a thin
coating on the inside wall of the column). The column is a very thin (capillary)
tube, sometimes as much as 30–60m (100-200ft) long, coiled and entirely
contained inside an oven (blue) that keeps it at a high enough temperature to
ensure that the sample remains in gas form. The temperature of the oven can
be carefully controlled.
– 6. As the sample separates out and its constituent gases travel along the column
at different speeds, a detector senses and records them. Various different
detectors can be used, including flame ionization detectors, thermal
conductivity detectors, and mass spectrometers (usually separate machines).
– 7. The data analyzer/recorder attached to the machine draws
a chromatogram (chart) with peaks corresponding to the relative amounts of
the different chemicals in the sample.
WHAT IS CHROMATOGRAPHY
USED FOR?
– Chromatography was developed in Russia in 1906 by an Italian-born botanist
named Mikhail Tswett (sometimes spelled Tsvet; 1872–1919), who used it for
studying plant pigments such as chlorophyll. During the 20th century, chemists
found chromatography was a superb technique for studying and separating all kinds
of complex mixtures. It's now widely used in forensic science (for identifying
samples taken from crime scenes), in pollution monitoring (for identifying small
concentrations of unknown pollutants in air and water samples), and for studying
complex mixtures in such things as food, perfume, petrochemical, and
pharmaceutical production. One of chromatography's big advantages is that it works
with tiny samples and low concentrations (particularly helpful when it comes to
such things as forensic science and drug or pollution testing).
PH- MEASUREMENT
-is used in a wide variety of applications: agriculture, wastewater treatment,
idustrial processes, environmental monitoring, and in research and development.
Ph is a me