Mobile Radio

Propagation
Large-Scale Path Loss
Small Scale path loss
Fading Channel Manifestation
Small-scale and large-scale fading

Small-scale and large-scale fading.

Typical large-scale path loss
Partition losses
Partition losses
Large and small scale
fading
 Large scale fading

Large scale fading is mainly due to two effects :

Attenuation and Shadowing

8
 Free Space
Propagation
The free apace propagation Model
Model is used to predict
received signal strength when
the transmitter and receiver
have a clear unobstructed line
of sight path between them.
 Friis Free Space Equation
The free space power received by a
Receiver antenna which is separated
from a radiating transmitter antenna
by a distance d, is given by the Friis
free space equation
Pt Gt Gr 
2
Pr 
(4 ) d L
2 2
The gain of the antenna related
to its affective aperture Ae is
given by

4Ae
G
Ae is related to the physical size
of the Antenna and 2

c 2c
 
f c
Where
f is the carrier frequency in
Hertz ωc is the carrier
frequency in rad/sec and c is
the speed of light given in
meters/sec.
The Three Basic Propagation
Mechanism

 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
 Reflection
Reflection occurs when a propagating
Electromagnetic wave impinges upon
an object which has very large
dimensions when compared
to the wavelength of the propagating
wave.
Reflection occurs from the surface
Of the earth and from buildings and
walls.
The reflected signal is not as strong As the original, as
objects can absorb Some of the signal’s power.
Reflection helps in transmitting Radio signals as if there
is no straight line or no straight free path available.
 Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when radio path
between transmitter and
receiver is obstructed by a surface
that has sharp irregularities (edges).
The secondary waves
resulting from the obstructing surface
are present throughout the space and
even behind the obstacle giving rise to
a bending of waves around the
obstacle even when a line-of-sight path
does not exist between transmitter and
receiver.
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the medium
through which the wave travels
consists of objects with dimensions
that are small compared to the
wavelength, and where the number
of obstacles per unit volume is large.
Scattered waves are produced by
rough surfaces, small objects, or by
other irregularities in the channel.
In practice, foliage, street signs, and
lamp posts induce scattering in a
mobile communications system.
Small-Scale
Fading
Small-Scale Fading and
Multipath

Factors Influencing Small Scale

Fading
 Multipath Propagation
 Speed of the mobile
 Speed of surrounding Objects
 The transmission Bandwidth Of the Signal
Doppler Shift Geometry
 Doppler Shift
Consider a mobile moving at a constant
velocity v, along a path segment having
length d between points X and Y, While
it receives signal from a remote source
S.
The difference in path lengths traveled
by the wave from source S to mobile at
points X and Y is

Δl=dcosθ=vΔt cosθ
Where Δt is the time required for the
mobile to travel from X to Y,
Assuming source is far away from both X
and Y points, then angle θ is same at both
points.
The Phase change in received signal due to
the difference in path lengths is
2l
 

And hence the apparent change in Frequency or
Doppler shift is given by fd ,Where

1  v
fd  .  cos 
2 t 
The above equation relates Doppler shift to the
mobile velocity and spatial angle between the
direction of motion of the mobile and arrival of
wave
 Small scale fading
Major Reasons:

•Random frequency
modulation due to
varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath
signals

• Time dispersion (echoes)

caused by multipath
propagation delays due to
nearby objects

• Movement of
surrounding objects
 Delay spread and
Intersymbol
Delay interference
spread effect is mainly due to small-scale fading. This
can result in ISI or bits crashing or smearing into one another.
 Measuring Access Delay
There is some finite delay between the time at
which the antenna receives the first copy of
the signal on the shortest path and that at
which it receives the last copy of the same
signal on the longest path.
 Maximum delay time spread It is the total
time interval during which reflections with
significant energy arrive.
 Root mean square delay spread It is the
standard deviation (or root mean square)
value of the delay of reflections weighted
proportional to the energy in the reflected
waves.
Inter-symbol Interference due to delay spread

ISI results in bit errors.

 Ways to reduce intersymbol interference
 Various types of equalizers are used to
reject ISI.
 The orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) modulation provides a
fairly strong and simple ISI rejection
mechanism using cyclic prefix. Moreover,
the symbol rate can be reduced by reducing
the data rate for each channel, that is, by
splitting the bandwidth into more channels
using OFDM.
 It is possible to (ideally) remove the
interference between different symbols
using a filter the Nyquist zero ISI criterion
 It is possible to manage ISI by controlling
the transmission rate in general.
Doppler Shift or Spread Scenario
Jake’s Model for Doppler Effect
 Doppler Power Spectrum
(for a sine wave suffering from Doppler effect)
 Excess Delay
There are two different forms of multipath
scattering depending on the excess time delay
of the given channel tap: small excess and large
excess.
 Small excess time delays The channel taps
may be modelled as the successive of multipath
components that are received from the
scatterers close to the mobile. This gives rise to
the classical Doppler power spectrum of the
received multipath components.
 Large excess time delays The classical
Doppler model does not provide a satisfactory
geometric model for this type of scattering.
Instead, multipath energy is more likely to have
a narrow Doppler spread, having risen from the
reflections of isolated obstacles, such as
buildings or hills.
 Fading effects on signal and frequency
components
Correlation between delay spread and coherence bandwidth
(time spreading) as well as definition of flat and frequency-
selective fading
 When the transmitted data rate is much smaller than the
coherence bandwidth, the wireless channel is referred to
as a flat channel or narrowband channel, and the effect
that the signal undergoes is called flat fading. In flat
fading, all the frequency components of the transmitted
signal will be equally affected and will be received with
almost equal power level.

 When the transmitted data rate is closely equal to or

larger than the coherence bandwidth, such a channel is
called a frequency-selective channel or wideband
channel, and the fading effect in this situation is called
frequency-selective fading. In this case, one can find the
different power levels of the different frequency
components.
Correlation between Doppler spread and coherence time (time variance)
as well as definition of slow and fast fading
 For receivers that change their location relative to
the transmitter, other factors like Doppler spread in
addition to multipath reflection affect the signal’s
amplitude and phase. To distinguish them from time
spreading, these effects can be described as time
variance or spatial variance .
 This tells us about how rapidly the fading conditions
are changing. Coherence time is the important
factor, with respect to which the slow and fast
fading can be decided.
 If the symbol period is longer than the coherence time (
Ts > T0 ), the channel exhibits fast fading
 If Ts < T0 (or W > fd ), the channel exhibits slow fading
Comparison of Flat and Frequency selective
fading responses
Types of channels and their effects
 Shadowing
 Shadowing is the effect that causes the
received signal power to fluctuate because of
the objects obstructing the propagation path
between the transmitter and receiver.
 These fluctuations are experienced on local
mean power, that is, short-term average of
fluctuations due to multipath fading.
 Shadowing complicates practical cell
planning. To fully predict local shadow
attenuation, up-to-date and highly detailed
terrain databases are needed.
 Signal outages and fading margin
*The received signal will experience the following:
Periods of sufficient signal strength or non-fade intervals
Periods of insufficient signal strength or fades
*During fades, the user experiences a signal outage, that is
cut out of the signal.
*Fade margin is the ratio of the average received power and
some threshold
power needed for reliable communication.
 Signal outages and fading margin

Outage probability depends upon the signal amplitude

variations and fade margin with respect to receiver threshold
level.
 Important Unit Conversions
 dBW (decimal-watt) If the value of 1 W is selected as
the reference, then the absolute level of power is
defined as

Power in dBm = 10log10 (power in W/1mW)

 dBm ( decimal-milliwatt ) If the value of 1 mW is

selected as the reference, then the absolute level of
power is defined as

Power in dBm = 10log10 (power in W/1mW)

 These units are extensively used in microwave

applications.