Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle

(How do cells divide?)

 cell division in prokaryotes

 chromosomes

 eukaryotic cell cycle

 mitosis

 cytokinesis

.
Prokaryotes

binary fission

generation time
as short as
20 minutes

.
 Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle
(How do cells divide?)

 cell division in prokaryotes

 chromosomes

 eukaryotic cell cycle

 mitosis

 cytokinesis

.
• Define:
– chromosome
– chromatin
– gene
– genome
– karyotype

• Describe the human genome and

karyotype in terms of:
– number of basepairs
– number of genes
– number of chromosomes
.
 Eukaryotic DNA
in
chromosomes

 chromatin: long DNA

molecule with
associated proteins
 chromosomes:
densely packaged
chromatin
 during cell division
 protects the DNA
 sets up DNA
distribution
.
 each chromosome contains
hundreds to thousands of genes
 functional units of heredity

 typically instructions for a protein or RNA

 genome – organism’s complete DNA

sequence

 humans apparently have ~25,000 genes in

the now-sequenced human genome

.
 chromosomes
 each species has a
characteristic number of
chromosomes
 number varies between species

 does not reflect complexity

 humans: 46

 some ferns: 1000+

 chromosomes for an individual

is the karyotype

.
.
 chromosomes
 function: chromosomes carry the
genetic information of a cell

 from one cell generation to the next

 from one organism to its offspring

.
.
• Define:
– chromosome
– chromatin
– gene
– genome
– karyotype

• Describe the human genome and

karyotype in terms of:
– number of basepairs
– number of genes
– number of chromosomes
.
 Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle
(How do cells divide?)

 cell division in prokaryotes

 chromosomes

 eukaryotic cell cycle

 mitosis

 cytokinesis

.
• Draw a circle diagram of the eukaryotic
cell cycle. Label all phases.

• Discuss what goes on in each of the

phases on the diagram. Note where
checkpoints exist. Also, discuss G0, and
discuss cell cycle regulation in general
terms.

.
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
 when cells reach a certain size, growth either
stops or the cell must divide

 cell division is generally a highly regulated

process (not all will divide!)

 the generation time for eukaryotic cells varies

widely, but is usually 8-20 hours

.
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

.
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

cyclins and cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks)

cytokinins; growth factors; suppressors; cancer cells

.
• Draw a circle diagram of the eukaryotic
cell cycle. Label all phases.

• Discuss what goes on in each of the

phases on the diagram. Note where
checkpoints exist. Also, discuss G0, and
discuss cell cycle regulation in general
terms.

.
.
 Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle
(How do cells divide?)

 cell division in prokaryotes

 chromosomes

 eukaryotic cell cycle

 mitosis

 cytokinesis

.
• Describe what “PMAT” means.

• With a partner, do the “chromosome

dance” for mitosis. Make sure that you
distinguish between chromosomes and
chromatids, and note at each stage the
number of sister chromatids per
chromosome.

• Discuss what happens in each stage of

mitosis.
.
Mitosis
4 stages:

prophase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase
*

(PMAT)
.
 Mitosis: prophase
 chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes
 each chromosome (duplicated
during S phase) forms a pair of
sister chromatids
 sister chromatids are joined at a
centromere by protein tethers

 centromeres contain a
kinetochore where microtubules
will bind
 each sister chromatid has its own
kinetochore

 sister chromatids become

attached by their kinetochores to
microtubules from opposite poles

.
 Mitosis: prophase
 a system of
microtubules, called the
mitotic spindle,
organizes between the
two poles (opposite
ends) of the cell
 each pole has a
microtubule organizing
center (MTOC)

 in animals and some other

eukaryotes, centrioles are
found in the MTOC

.
 Mitosis: prophase
 by the end of prophase:

 the nuclear membrane has

disappeared (actually
divided into many small
vesicles)

 nucleoli have disintegrated

 the sister chromatids are

attached by their
kinetochores to
microtubules from
opposite poles

.
 Mitosis: prophase
 some call the later part of prophase
prometaphase, usually defined to
include vesicularization of the nuclear
membrane and attachment of
kinetochores to microtubules

 in some eukaryotes the nuclear

membrane never vesicularizes

.
 Mitosis: metaphase
 chromosomes line up along the
midplane of the cell (the metaphase
plate)
 chromosomes are highly condensed
 the mitotic spindle, now complete, has
two types of microtubules
 kinetochore microtubules extend from
a pole to a kinetochore
 polar microtubules extend from a pole
to the midplane area, often overlapping
with polar microtubules from the other
pole
 the mitosis checkpoint appears to be
here; progress past metaphase is
typically prevented until the
kinetochores are all attached to
microtubules
.
 Mitosis: anaphase
 sister chromatids
separate and are moved
toward opposite poles

 the protein tethers at the

centromere between the
chromatids are broken

 each former sister

chromatid can now be
called a chromosome

.
 Mitosis: anaphase
 model for the mechanism that moves chromosomes to the poles
 motor proteins move the chromosomes towards the poles along the
kinetochores microtubules

 kinetochore microtubules shorten behind the moving chromosomes

 polar microtubules lengthen the entire spindle

 motor proteins on the polar microtubules slide them past each other, pushing
them apart (the microtubules may grow a bit, too)

 this pushes the MTOCs away from each other, and thus has the effect of pushing
kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles away from each other

.
 Mitosis: anaphase

 overall, this process assures that each

daughter cell will receive one of the
duplicate sets of genetic material
carried by the chromosomes

.
 Mitosis: telophase
 prophase is essentially
reversed
 the mitotic spindle is
disintegrated

 the chromosomes decondense

 nuclear membranes reform

around the genetic material to *

form two nuclei

 each has an identical copy of the
genetic information

 nucleoli reappear, and interphase

cellular functions resume

.
• Describe what “PMAT” means.

.
• With a partner, do the “chromosome
dance” for mitosis. Make sure that you
distinguish between chromosomes and
chromatids, and note at each stage the
number of sister chromatids per
chromosome.

• Discuss what happens in each stage of

mitosis.

.
 Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle
(How do cells divide?)

 cell division in prokaryotes

 chromosomes

 eukaryotic cell cycle

 mitosis

 cytokinesis

.
• Describe cytokinesis in both plant cells
and animal cells, noting the differences.

• Describe what is meant by the term

“polar division” and why this process
was (and still is) important in your
development.

.
 cytokinesis
 divides the cell
into two daughter
cells

 cytokinesis usually
begins in
telophase and
ends shortly
thereafter

.
 cytokinesis
 in animals, a cleavage
furrow develops
 usually close to where the
metaphase plate was

 a microfilament (actin) ring

contracts due to interactions
with myosin molecules,
forming a deepening furrow

 eventually, the ring closes

enough for spontaneous
separation of the plasma
membrane, resulting in two
separate cells
*
.
 cytokinesis
 in plants, a cell plate develops
 usually close to where the
metaphase plate was

 vesicles that originate from the

Golgi line up in the equatorial
region

 the vesicles fuse and add more

vesicles
 grow outward until reaching the
plasma membrane and thus
separating the cells

 the vesicles contain materials

for making the primary cell wall
and a middle lamella
*
.
 cytokinesis
 cytoplasm (and with it most organelles)
is usually distributed randomly but
roughly equally between daughter cells

 sometimes cell division is a highly

regulated polar division that
purposefully distributes some materials
unequally

.
• Describe cytokinesis in both plant cells
and animal cells, noting the differences.

• Describe what is meant by the term

“polar division” and why this process
was (and still is) important in your
development.

.
• In the following slide, look for examples
of interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase/cytokinesis.

.
*