Relaxation Oscillators

Use an RC timing circuit and a device that

changes states to generate a periodic
waveform

Non sinusoidal Waveform Generation

 A Triangular Wave Oscillator
Positive and Negative going
ramps are generated when the
dual polarity switch is thrown
back and forth at fixed intervals.
This creates the shape of a
triangular waveform

Basic Triangular Wave Oscillator

 Practical Triangular Wave Oscillator
• Output of Comparator circuit
is a square wave having
constant positive and
negative levels.
• Square wave at the input
(inverting) generates
triangular wave at the output
of Integrator circuit.
• UTP (Upper Trigger Point)
and LTP (Lower Trigger Point)
determine the time of
switching for comparator
• More than one output
periodic waveforms are
present in the circuit and
hence the name Function
Generator is also applicable
for this circuit
• The amplitude of the square wave is set by the
output swing of the comparator
• R2 and R3 set the amplitude of the triangular
wave by establishing UTP and LTP voltages

• +Vmax and –Vmax levels are equal

• The frequency of both waveforms depends on
R1 C time constant as well as the amplitude
setting resistors,R2 and R3
By varying R1 ,the frequency of oscillation can be adjusted without
changing the output amplitude
 Sawtooth Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• VCO is a relaxation oscillator whose frequency can be changed by a
variable dc control voltage.
• VCO can be either sinusoidal or non sinusoidal.
• PUT>>(Programmable Unijunction Transistor) terminates each ramp
at a prescribed level and effectively reset the circuit.
• PUT is a programmable uni junction transistor with an anode, a cathode,
and a gate terminal.

• The gate is always biased positively with respect to the cathode.

• When the anode voltage exceeds the gate voltage by approximately 0.7 V,
the PUT turns on and acts as a forward-biased diode.

• When the anode voltage falls below this level the PUT turns off.
Also, the current must be above the holding value to maintain conduction.

•The circuit operates as a regular integrator when the negative input dc

voltage –VIN is applied

•The PUT triggers on when the output ramp (at the anode)
exceeds the gate voltage by 0.7 V

•The gate is set to the approximate desired sawtooth peak volt-

age.

•When the PUT turns on, the capacitor rapidly discharges.

•The capacitor does not discharge completely to zero because of the PUT's
forward voltage. V F .
•Discharge continues until the PUT current falls below the holding value.

•At this point, the PUT turns off and the capacitor begins to charge again,
thus generating a new output ramp.

•The sawtooth amplitude and period can be adjusted by varying the PUT gate
voltage.

•The frequency of oscillation is determined by the RiC time constant of the

integrator and the peak voltage set by the PUT.

•The time it takes a capacitor to charge from VF to Vp is the period, T, of the

sawtooth waveform (neglecting the rapid discharge time).
 A Square-Wave Oscillator
The Op-amp's inverting input is the
capacitor voltage VC

The non inverting input is a portion

of the output fed back through
resistors R2 and R3

Let initially the capacitor be

uncharged, and thus the inverting
input is at 0 V.

This makes the output a positive

maximum

The capacitor begins to charge

toward Vout through R1
When VC equals Vf , the op-amp
switches to the maximum negative
state.
The operation of this oscillator is
based on charging and
discharging of a capacitor, so it is
a relaxation oscillator
At this point, the capacitor begins to discharge from + Vf towards –Vf

When the capacitor voltage reaches – Vf , the op-amp switches back to the
maximum positive state.
Physical structure
• One lightly-doped (high resistivity) silicon slab.
• Two base contacts (B1 and B2) at both end of
the slab.
• The p-n junction is form by alloying an
aluminum rod to the slab.
• The aluminum rod is closer to B2 contact than
B1 contact.
• B2 is made positive with respect to B1.
UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

The UJT as the name implies, is characterized by a single pn junction. It exhibits negative
resistance characteristic that makes it useful in oscillator circuits.

The symbol for UJT is shown in fig.i. The UJT is having three terminals base1 (B1), base2 (B2)
and emitter (E). The UJT is made up of an N-type silicon bar which acts as the base as shown in
fig. ii. It is very lightly doped. A P-type impurity is introduced into the base, producing a single
PN junction called emitter. The PN junction exhibits the properties of a conventional diode.

Fig. i Fig .ii

A complementary UJT is formed by a P-type base and N-type emitter. Except for the polarity of
voltage and current the characteristic is similar to those of a conventional UJT.

A simplified equivalent circuit for the UJT is shown in fig.iii . VBB is a source of biasing voltage
connected between B2 and B1. When the emitter is open, the total resistance from B2 to B1 is
simply the resistance of the silicon bar, this is known as the inter base resistance RBB. Since the
N-channel is lightly doped, therefore RBB is relatively high, typically 5 to 10K ohm. RB2 is the
resistance between B2 and point ‘a', while RB1 is the resistance from point ‘a' to B1, therefore
the interbase resistance RBB is

RBB = RB1 + RB2

Fig.iii
The diode accounts for the rectifying properties of the PN junction. VD is the diode's threshold
voltage. With the emitter open, IE = 0, and I1 = I 2 . The interbase current is given by

I1 = I2 = VBB / R BB .

Part of VBB is dropped across RB2 while the rest of voltage is dropped across RB1. The voltage across
RB1 is

Va = VBB * (RB1 ) / (RB1 + RB2 )

The ratio RB1 / (RB1 + RB2 ) is called intrinsic standoff ratio h = RB1 / (RB1 + RB2 ) i.e. Va = h VBB .

The ratio h is a property of UJT and it is always less than one and usually between 0.4 and 0.85. As
long as IB = 0, the circuit of behaves as a voltage divider.

Assume now that vE is gradually increased from zero using an emitter supply VEE . The diode
remains reverse biased till vE voltage is less than h VBB and no emitter current flows except leakage
current. The emitter diode will be reversed biased.

When vE = VD + h VBB, then appreciable emitter current begins to flow where VD is the diode's
threshold voltage. The value of vE that causes, the diode to start conducting is called the peak point
voltage and the current is called peak point current IP.

VP = VD + h VBB.
The lightly doped N region gives these holes a long lifetime.
These holes move towards B1 to complete their path by re-
entering at the negative terminal of VEE. The large holes create
a conducting path between the emitter and the lower base. These
increased charge carriers represent a decrease in resistance RB1,
therefore can be considered as variable resistance. It decreases
up to 50 ohm.

Since h is a function of RB1 it follows that the reduction of RB1 causes a corresponding
reduction in intrinsic standoff ratio. Thus as IE increases, RB1 decreases, h decreases,
and Va decreases. The decrease in V a causes more emitter current to flow which
causes further reduction in RB1, h, and Va. This process is regenerative and therefore
Va as well as vE quickly drops while IE increases. Although RB decreases in value, but
it is always positive resistance. It is only the dynamic resistance between VV and VP.
At point B, the entire base1 region will saturate with carriers and resistance RB1 will
not decrease any more. A further increase in Ie will be followed by a voltage rise.
The diode threshold voltage decreases with temperature and RBB resistance increases
with temperature because Si has positive temperature coefficient.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)
Characteristics of representative UJT:
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS

Basic UJT relaxation oscilator

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
The operation
Assume that the initial
capacitor voltage, VC
is zero. When the
supply voltage VBB is
first applied, the UJT
is in the OFF state. IE
is zero and C charges
exponentially through
R1 towards VBB.
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS

When the supply

voltage VC (= VE)
reaches the firing
potential, VP, the UJT
fires and C discharges
exponentially through
R2 until VE reaches
the valley potential
VV.
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS

When VE reaches the valley potential VV the

UJT turns OFF, IE goes to zero and the
capacitor is recharged.

This process repeats itself to produce the

waveforms for vC and vR2 as shown below;
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS

The waveform, vC
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example
For the UJT relaxation oscillator in the following figure, it
is known that;

RBB  5 k;   0.6; VV  1 V;

IV  10 mA; I P  10 μA and
RB1  100  during discharge
phase
a) Determine;
i. The value of VP to switch-on the UJT;

ii. The range of R1 to switch-on and switch-off the UJT;

iii. Frequency of oscillation if RB1 = 100  during discharge phase of the

iv. capacitor C;

b) Sketch the wave shape of VC and VR2.

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION
a)
 RB1   RB1 
      
 RBB   RB1  RB 2 
Substituting values;

RB1
0 .6  RB1  3 k
5 k
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
a)
RB 2  RBB  RB1  5 k  3 k  2 k

The value VP to switch-on the UJT when vC

= VP which corresponds to IE = IP = 10 A 
0 A may be calculated as follows;

 RB1  R2 
VP  V pn   VBB
 RB1  R2  RB 2 
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
a)
Substituting values;

 3 k  R2 
VP  0.7   12 V 
 3 k  0.1 k  2 k 

VP  8 V
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
b)
 VBB  VP   VBB  VV 
   R1   
 IP   IV 
Substituting values;

 12  8   12  1 
   R1   
 10 μ   10 m 
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
b)
400 k  R1  1.1 k
c)
 VBB  VV 
t1  R1C ln  
 VBB  VP 
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
c)
Substituting values;

 12  1 
t1  50 k 0.1 μ  ln    5.05 ms
 12  8 

 VP 
t1  RB1  R2 C ln  
 VV 
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
c)
Substituting values;

8
t1  0.1 k  0.1 k 0.1 μ  ln  
1
 41.6 μs
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
c)
T  t1  t1  5.05 m  41.6 μ
 5.09 ms

1 1
f    196.5 Hz
T 5.09 m
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
d)
 UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)

d While C is charging,
) the UJT is inactive.

 R2 
VR 2   
 R2  RB1  RB 2 

 
12
0.1k

 0.1k  3k  3k 
 0.235 V
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
d) While V = V , the UJT is active.
C P

VR 2
 R2 
  VP  V pn 
 R2  RB1 
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)
d) Substituting values;

 0.1k 
 8  0.7 
 0.1k  0.1k 
 3.65 V
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
Example – SOLUTION (cont’d)