CHAPTER 7: PERPETUATION

OF LIFE
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• A type of reproduction that occur wth a single parent
and produces offspring by ell division or splitting of
one cell
• Offsprings are identical to parents
• Advantage: organisms can reproduce many offspring
in a short period of time without exerting much
energy to either produce gametes or to find a mate
• Disadvantage: lack of variation among individuals
Types:
• FISSION
– the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the
regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the
original
– examples:
• amoeba
• paramcium
– Types:
• irregular (amoeba)
• longitudinal (euglena)
• transverse (paramecium)
AMOEBA PARAMECIUM
• BUDDING
– an outgrowth (bud) arises from the body of the parent
– most happen in invertebrates
– examples:
• cnidarians
• sponges
• flatworms
• annelids
• echinoderm
CNIDARIANS
SPONGES
FLATWORMS
ECHINODERM
• FRAGMENTATION
– reproduction by regenerating parts
– example:
• annelids
• PARTHENOGENESIS
– a natural form of asexual
reproduction in which
growth and development of
embryos occur without
fertilization
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• involves sex cell or gametes produced by parents
Types:
• DIOECIOUS
– have separate sexes
– undergo gametogenesis
• HERMAPHRODITES
– possess both male and female organs
– advantageous if an animal rarely meets a mate
– examples:
• simple invertebrates
• earthworms
• some fishes
– Sequential Hermaphrodite
• can change their sex in response to social or
environmental pressure
• examples: bluehead wrasse coral fish
–protogyny
»female to male
–protandry
»male to female
 Three fundamental steps in sexual
reproduction
• GAMETOGENESIS
– production of gametes
• SPAWNING / MATING
– bringing gametes together
• FERTILIZATION
– fusion of gametes
Types of fertilization
• EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
– sexual reproduction which occurs outside the body
– oviparous
• practiced external fertilization
– egg - laying amphibians or fish
• INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
– practiced by mammals and other reptiles
– vivaparous
• the young develops inside the mother's body until they are mature
enough to be born and live indepently
• examples:marsupials
PRODUCING GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ANIMALS
• DNA (deoxyribonucliec acid)
– carries the DNA instructions for assembling a variety of proteins
responsible for forming a variety of structures
– contains 23 pairs of chromosomes
• GENOTYPE
– the genetic material found inside the nucleus
• PHENOTYPE
– observable characteristics
• RNA (ribonucliec acid)
– encodes proteins
• CENTRAL DOGMA OF TENDENCIES
– flow of genetic information to proteins
• REPLICATION
– a process of producing a complimentary strand from a single
strand of DNA
• TRANSLATION
– the process that takes the
information passed from
DNA as messenger
RNAand turns it into a
series of amino acids bound
together with peptide bonds
• CODONS
– a sequence of three DNA or
RNA nucleotides that
corresponds with a specific
amino acids or stop signal
during protein synthesis
GENETIC ENGINEERING
• GENETIC ENGINEERING
– allows a specific gene from one organism to be transferred into
the DNA of another organism
• SELECTIVE BREEDING
– the process of using plants or animals with desirable traits to
reproduce offspring with specific traits
• HYBRIDIZATION
– the process of crossing plants or animals with different
variations of the same trait to create an organism with the best
trait
Recombinant DNA Technology
• It is the technique of combining two DNA sequences from
different sources
• Goal:
– cloning a particular gene for analysis or mass production of a
medically useful protein product
• MOLECULAR CLONING
– done by cutting the desired DNA fragment (gene) into a vector
usually either from a virus or a bacterial plasmid
• Vector - a DNA molecule
used as a vehicle to carry
foreign genetic material to
another cell
Genetically Modified Plants
• Through genetic engineering, scientists have achieved
the production of plants that are resistant to pesticides
and drought; production of fruits and vegetables with
improved taste, texture, size, and color; and production of
grain with improved protein content
Pest - resistant crops
• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
– a soil bacterium, which produces crystal proteins that is toxic to
crop pests such as horn worms, was introduced to protect
tomato and cotton plants
Herbicide - resistant crops
• using glyphosate, which kils weeds but i also stops the
crops from producing essential aromatic amino acids
neeed for growth
• by isolating glyphosate resistant gene and encoding the
resistant enzyme from the bacteria
Plants with more nutritional values
• Golden rice which addresses the nutritional deficiencies
associated with vitamin A and iron
• they added a beta - carotene from daffodil flowers and
incorporated it in rice plants
GM FOOD CONSUMPTION AND
POTENTIAL RISK
Three issues with GMO consumption:
• They are potentially harmful to other organisms
– Bt corn, the pollen of the transgenic crop could be harmful to
some insects.
– for example, it was found out that the larvae of Monarch
butterflies are harmed by the Bt protein and yet they are not
pests. This might lead to issues with biodiversity loss for some
species.
Three issues with GMO consumption:
• They can elicit resistance
– the exposure to the GM crops could lead to the growth of
herbicide resistant “superweeds”, which would require
traditional toxic psticide.
Three issues with GMO consumption:
• They can affect the gene flow
– the possibility of introduced genes to pass from GM crops to
nearby wild relatives are also being considered.
– with the GM crops grown alongside non - Gm crops, the
possibility of pollen transfer for interbreeding and producing
new hybrids is another concern.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ANIMALS
Transgenic Animals for Producing a Product
• GENE PHARMING
– uses transgenic animals to produce pharmaceutical products
for therapeutic and diagnostic purpose.
Cloning Transgenic Animals for Various Purposes
• 1997
– cloning the first sheep
• Purpose of cloning:
– to reduce the impact of using animals for experimentation
– to study a gene's function as it relates to diseases
– xenotransplatation
• the use of animal organs instead of human organs in transplant
patients
• example: GM pigs to generate human organs,chances of tissue
incompatibility and rejection is eliminated