PRINCIPLES

OF
HIGH QUALITY
ASSESSMENT
TEACHER-MADE TESTS
 It means that teachers design
them. These tests are associated
with the grades on reports card.
 Test scores may be used for a
portion of students’ mark
(Williams and Haladyna, 1999).
 Some of the following suggestions
can be helpful in constructing
tests:
1. Tests should be balanced
among the following:
a. Short answer/ paragraph
answer
b. Words/ pictures/ maps/
diagrams/ etc.
c. Easy/ difficult questions
d. Factual knowledge/
application of knowledge
e. Knowledge/ skills
As much as possible, test questions
should be given within a meaningful
context.
Poor: Name the continents and oceans.
Better: Name the continents and oceans
as shown on the map.
Poor: Mark the following if true or false.
Better: Mark the following if true or
false. For the false statements, rewrite
them to make them true.
Poor: Answer the following
questions:
Better: Write 2 questions that you
have about the following topics:
(or) Describe how you have
improved in a skill while doing
this unit. (or) List 3 things you
have learned, what you enjoyed
most, and the like.
2. Students should not be penalized
with a low mark because they are
weak in reading and writing. These
students may be assisted in one of
several ways.
a. The teacher might go over the test
beforehand and read and explain
each question.
b. Tests should be done in small groups
or with a partner.
c. The teacher might form a small
group during the test and
quietly read each question with
the group, allowing time for
students to write their answer
or give them orally.
d. In some cases it may be
appropriate for some students
to have a tutor coach them
beforehand.
3. The teacher might choose to use a
format different from the conventional
test. For example:
a. Make up a test that has as many
questions (or groups of questions) as
there are students in the class.
b. A variation of this is the use of testing
stations where a variety of materials are
set up, and a group of students would
answer a set of questions or respond to
some directions.
 This type of test has a
number of advantages:
a. It allows a teacher to use
pictures, news articles, special
maps, artifacts, library books,
among others.
b. The students can finish the test
all at the same time.
c. If the answers are straight
forward, it could be marked by
the students immediately after
the test. Answer could then be
discussed along with the maps,
or artifacts that were used.
d. It may be advantageous when
testing for students’
attainment.
 According to Stiggins ( 2001),
the purposes of classroom tests
vary, but prior to constructing
any test, teachers should first
identify the kinds of
instructional decisions that will
be made based on test results,
and the kinds of score-based
inferences needed to support
 There should be no obvious content
gaps, and the number and
weighting of items on a test should
representative of the importance of
the content standards being
measured. Tests items can be
classified as selected-response
(e.g., multiple-choice or true-false)
or constructed-response (e.g.,
essay or short-answer).
 When constructing either type,
Popham (2003) offers five pitfalls
to avoid, all of which interfere
with making accurate inferences of
students’ status. They are:
1. Unclear directions;
2. Ambiguous statements;
3. Unintentional clues;
4. Complex phrasing; and
5. Difficult vocabulary.
 CLARITY OF LEARNING
TARGETS
 Popham (2000), suggested the
following sequence of
instruction:
1. Determine the specific learning
targets and their sequence for
instruction.
2. As standard may be composed
of one learning target
3. Each learning target typically is
a)The CONTENTS (what
students must know)
connected with the
learning target
b)The SKILLS (what
students must be able to
do) connected with the
learning target
c. The assessment for learning that
will be used to keep students
informed of their progress and to
design next steps for instruction
d. The assessment of learning
should cover the content for the
entire unit
e. The lesson designed to teach
students the learning targets
 Target Example Possibl
Target Assistan
area Behavior

Knowledge Spell word Quizzes,essa

correctly questionin

Solve math Essays,

Reasoning problems
observatio
Performance Speak foreign Observations,
language rubrics
Product
Create a web Rubrics
Development

Attitudes Positives Surveys,

attitudes observations
 The Conditions define the materials that
will be available (or unavailable) when the
objectives is assessed. It generally states
what the student will be given or not
given.
Example conditions for objectives might
include:
• Without the use of a calculator
• Given a map of Europe
• Given twelve double-digit numbers
 The Behavior is a verb that describes an
observable activity – what the student
will do. The behavior is generally stated
as an action verb, such as: solve,
compare, list, explain, evaluate, identity,
define.
 The Criterion (also referred to as
Degree) is the standard that is used to
measure whether or not the objective
has been achieved. The criteria might
be stated as a percentage (80%
correct), a time limit (within five
minutes), or another measure of
mastery. For example, an objective
might be “Given a list of twenty states
(condition),the students will identity
(behavior) at least fifteen of the
corresponding state capitals
(criteria)”.
It is easy for teachers to construct
appropriate assessments if they use
observable and directly measurable
objectives and learning outcomes.
For example, one of the benchmark
for the national standards (grades 3-
5, social studies) is: “Know
significant people and their
contributions in the field of
communication and technology.” To
target this benchmark, the following
objectives could be developed:
1. Given the names o f six
inventors, students will be able
to correctly match them to
specific contribution in
communication and technology.
2. Students will be able to
compare the contributions of
Thomas Edison with those of
Bill Gates , listing at least two
similarities and two differences.
LEARNING TARGETS
 It state clearly what the child will
be learning in all subject areas,
these include Reading, Language
Arts, Mathematics, Science,
Social Studies, Music, Physical
Education, Health, Art, and
School Counseling.
 SETTING LEARNING
TARGETS
 We expect all children to
enjoy high level learning
experiences. Learning
targets promote
consistency in teaching
and learning.
USING LEARNING TARGETS
 Teachers assess student
performance throughout the
year.
 These frequent checks provide
the teachers with information
on skills and concepts that
may have to be covered again
as children mature.
 The teacher is then able to
help each child before he or
she falls behind their grade
level.
 The new paradigm of assessing
student learning includes the
four criteria of knowledge, skills,
behavior and attitude, and
emphasizes multiple
measurement.
 High quality assessment plays a
very important role in improving
teaching and learning; it provide
useful measures of student
performance.
 SET OF GUIDING PRINCIPLES
FOR HIGH QUALITY
ASSESSMENT
1. STUDENTS ARE THE KEY
ASSESSMENT USERS
a. They look to their teachers for
evidence of their success.
Hence, if teachers say, classroom
assessment information is the fuel
that powers learning. Then, teachers
can begin to realize the impact of
assessments have on their students
academic success.
2. CLEAR AND APPROPRIATE TARGETS
ARE ESSENTIAL
A teacher cannot accurately
assess academic achievement
targets that he/she has not
precisely defined. She/he must
ask: Do I know what it means to
do it (assignment) well?
a. Start with a highly defined vision
of what good writing looks like
b. Need a sense of how to help your
students meet that standard
ACCURATE ASSESSMENT
IS A MUST
1. High quality assessment is
essential in all assessments.
2. Sound assessments arise from
clear achievement targets
3. Valid assessments reflect clear
achievement targets
4. Begin any assessment design with
a clear sense of WHY you are
conducting the assessment.
High quality assessment can
be achieve if:
1. Evaluation is based on clearly
stated objectives.
2.Eveluation procedures and
techniques should be selected in
terms of clearly stated objectives.
3. Evaluation should be
comprehensive.
4. Evaluation should be continuous
and an integral part of the teaching-
learning process.
5. Evaluation should be diagnostic and
functional.
6. Evaluation should cooperative.
7. Evaluation should be used
judiciously.

Intentional teaching- means that

all instruction and classroom
activities are aimed at specific
learning targets. Hence, teachers
need to begin with well-defined
targets to be able to develop
assessment that:
1. Reflect exactly what is taught;
and
2. What student are expected to
learn.
 There are many benefits based on
the existence of learning that are
CLEAR and USABLE in order to
build clear learning targets.
1. Knowledge targets begin with
words like
: know, list, name, identify, recall.
Procedural knowledge targets-
call for knowing how to do
something.
Example:
Use specific notation to represent
very large and very small
numbers.
2. Reasoning targets- deal
with the skillful use or
application of knowledge.
These targets start out with
mental process like: predict,
infer, classify, hypothesis,
compare, conclude,
summarize, analyze,
evaluate, generalize.
 TYPES OF REASONING
a. Inductive Reasoning uses
specific facts or evidence to
infer general conclusions.
b. Deductive Reasoning begins with
a general rule or principle to
infer specific conclusions or
solutions.
c. Analytical Reasoning requires
examining components or
structure of something.
d. Comparative Reasoning
describes similarities and
differences between two or more
items.
 Marzano’s research concludes
that identifying similarities and
differences is the most effective
learning techniques for students.
 Classifying means sorting things
into categories based on specific
characteristics.
 Evaluative reasoning involves
expressing and defending an
opinion, a point of view, a
judgment or a decision.
 Synthesis is the process of
combining several discrete
elements to create something
new.
3. Performance skills Targets-
require the students to
demonstrate their mastery of a
learning target and to be
observed
4. Product targets- are not used as
frequently as other types but are
highly valued calling for creation
of a product.
5. Dispositional targets- rarely
show up on state standards but
are important because they
reflect students attitudes about
school and learning.
 Establishing Learning
Targets
Educational goals
These are very general statements
of what students will know and be
able to do.
 Mathematics Examples
1. Students will learn to use
mathematics to define and solve
problems
2. Students will develop number sense
3. Students will develop geometric
sense
4. Students will learn the fundamental
concepts of measurement
Science Examples
1. Students will learn to
apply scientific research
methods to investigate
research questions.
2. Students will develop the
abilities to do scientific
inquiry
3. Students will learn to
recognize the
interconnections within
and among systems
Language Arts Examples
 1. Students will learn to
think critically about the
effectiveness of written text
 2. Students will learn to
write in a variety of forms
for different audiences
purposes
 3. Students will learn to use
different skills and
strategies for reading
 Educational Learning
Objective
These are more specific
statements of what students will
know and be able to do. They should
be stated in terms of specific,
observable, and measurable student
responses always think about what
specific things you want students to
learn, in relation to your goal.
Learning objectives are not:
1. Activities that students will
engage in (these are teaching
objective).
2. Materials students will see or
use.
 Mathematics Example
 Goal 1: Students will learn to use
mathematics to define and solve the
problems.
Objective 1: Students will to learn
to identify questions to be
answered in real- world situations.
Objective 2: Students will learn to
apply a variety of strategies to
investigate problems.
Objective 3: Students will learn to
identify relevant information in a
problem situation.
Objective 4: Students will learn to
recognize the need to abandon or
modify an approach to a solution.
 Goal 2: Students will develop
number sense
Objective 1: Students will
learn to compute (add, subtract,
multiply, and divide) using whole
numbers.
Objective 2: Students will
learn when estimation is a better
approach than computation.
Objective 3: Students will
learn to use estimation to check the
reasonableness of their answer
Objective 4: Students will
learn the meaning of basic
operations and how to apply basic
operations to situations involving
whole numbers
 Language Arts Example
 Goal 1: Students will learn to write in a
variety of forms for different audiences
and purposes
Objective 1: Students will learn to write
for distant audiences
Objectives 2: Students will learn to
write persuade others
Objective 3: Students will learn to write
to express themselves
Objective 4: Students will learn to write
to inform others
 Two inappropriate learning
objectives are:
1. Students will conduct chemistry
experiments
2. Students will write in their
mathematics journal every day
Types of Learning Targets
Marzano and Kendall (1996)
identified 5 types of learning
targets:
1. Knowledge and Simple
Understanding- This include mastery
of facts and information, typically
through recall ( i.e. dates, definition,
and principles) as well as simple
understanding (i.e. summarizing a
paragraph, explaining a chart, and
giving examples.)
2. Deep Understanding and
Reasoning- This includes
problem solving, critical
thinking, synthesis, comparing,
higher order thinking skills, and
judgment.
3. Skills- This involves something
that a student must
demonstrate in a way other
than answering question. These
type of targets involve a
behavior in which the
knowledge, understanding, and
reasoning, are used overtly.
4. Products- This includes a sample of
student work
(i.e.paper,report,artwork,or other
project) that demonstrate the ability
knowledge, understanding,
reasoning, and skills.
5. Affective – This includes
attitudes, values, interests,
feelings, and beliefs.
Sources of Learning Target
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy
2. National, Regional, and District
Standards
3. Textbooks
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Three Types of Learning
There is more than one type of
learning. A committee of college,
led by Benjamin Bloom, identified
three domains of educational
activities:
1. Cognitive – mental skills ( k n o w
ledge)
2. Affective – growth in feelings or
emotional areas ( A t t i t u d e )
3. Psychomotor – manual or
physical skills ( S k i l l s)
 Learning outcomes in the cognitive
domain are divided into two major
classes:
1. Knowledge
a. Remembering previously learned
material
• Knowledge of specifics
• Knowledge of terms
• Knowledge of specific facts
b. Knowledge of ways and means of
dealing with specifics
• Knowledge of conventions
• Knowledge of trends and sequences
• Knowledge of classifications and
categories
• Knowledge of criteria
• Knowledge of methodology
c. Knowledge of universals and abstractions in
a field
• Knowledge of principles and generalizations
• Knowledge of theories and structures
2. Intellectual Abilities and Skills
a. Comprehension – grasping the meaning of
the material
• Translation – Converting from one form to
another
• Interpretation – explaining or summarizing
material
• Extrapolation – extending the meaning
beyond the data
b. Application – using information in concrete
situations.
• Analysis – breaking down materials into parts
• Analysis of elements – identifying parts
• Analysis of relationships – Identifying the
relationship
• Analysis of organizational principles – identifying
the organization
c. Synthesis – putting parts together into a whole
• Production of a unique communication
• Production of a plan or proposed set of
operations
• Derivation of a set of abstract relations
d. Evaluation – judging the value of a thing
for a given purposed using definite
criteria.
• Judgments in terms of internal evidence
• Judgments in terms of external criteria
Stating General Learning
Outcomes
The learning outcomes to be measured are
used in test construction when they are
stated as terminal performance which
are observable. It means that they should
clearly indicate the student performance
to be demonstrated at the end of the
learning experience.
Quellmalz (1987) presented list of
learning outcomes which are to defied
in terms of specific learning outcomes:
At the end of this unit in achievements
test planning, the student will
demonstrate that he or she:
1. Knows the meaning of common
terms;
2. Knows specifics facts about test
planning;
3. Knows the basic procedures for
planning an achievements test;
4. Comprehends the relevant principles
of testing; and
5. Applies the principles in test planning.
The next task for the teacher is to list
specific types of specific performance
that are to be accepted as evidence
that the outcomes have been achieved.
1. Knows the meaning of the common
terms
a. Identifies the correct definition of
terms
b. Identifies the meaning of terms
when used in context
c. Distinguishes between terms on the
basic of meaning
d. Selects the most appropriate terms
when describing testing procedures
2. Comprehends the relevant principle
of testing
a. Described each principles in his
or her own words
b. Matches a specific example to
each principle
c. Explain the relevance of each
principle to the major steps in the
test planning
d. Predicts the most probable effect
of violating each of the principles
e. Formulates a test plan that is in
harmony with the principles
 Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves
knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills. This includes the
recall or recognition of specific facts,
procedural patterns, and concepts
that serve in the development of
intellectual abilities and skills. The
following six major categories are
listed in order, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most
complex. That is, the first one must be
mastered before the next one can take
place.
1. Knowledge – Recall data or
information.
Examples:
a. Recite a policy.
b. Quote prices from memory
to a customer.
c. Know the safety rules..
Key Words: define, describe,
identify, know, label, list,
match, name, outline, recall,
recognize, reproduce, select,
state.
2. Comprehension- Understand the
meaning, translation, interpretation,
and interpolation of instructions and
problems.
Examples:
a. Rewrite the principles of test
writing.
b. Explain in own words the steps for
performing a complex task.
c. Translate an equation into a
computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: comprehend, convert,
defend, distinguish, estimate, explain,
extend, generalize, give, infer,
interpret, paraphrase, predict,
rewrite, summarize, translate.
3. Application- Use a concept in a new
situation or unprompted use of an
abstraction.
Examples:
a. Use a manual to calculate an
employee’s vacation time.
b. Apply laws of statistics to
evaluate the reliability of a written
test.
Key Words: apply, change, compute,
construct, demonstrate, discover,
manipulate, modify, operate, predict,
prepare, produce, relate, show,
4. Analysis- separates material or concepts
into a component so that its
organizational structure may be
understood.
Examples:
a. Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by
using logical deduction.
b. Recognize logical fallacies in
reasoning.
c. Gather information from a department
and selects the required tasks for
training.
Key Words: analyze, break down,
compare, contrast, diagram, deconstruct,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish,
identify, illustrate, infer, outline, relate,
select, separate.
5. Synthesis- builds a structure or pattern
from diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a whole, with emphasis
on creating a new meaning a structure.
Example:
A. write a company operations or process
manual.
B. design a machine to perform a specific
task.
C. integrate training from several sources
to solve a problem.
D. Revise and process to improve the
outcome.
Key words: categorize, combine,
compile, compose, create, devise,
design, explain, generate, modify,
organize, plan, rearrange,
reconstruct, relate, reorganize,
rewrite, summarize, tell, write.
6. Evaluation- make judgments about
the value of ideas or materials.
Examples:
1. Select the most effective solution.
2. Hire the most qualifies candidate.
3. Explain and justify a new budget.
Key words: appraise, compare, conclude,
contrast, criticize, critique, defend,
describe, discriminate, evaluate, explain,
interpret, justify, relate, summarize,
support.

Affective Domain
This domain includes the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally,
such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasm, motivation and attitudes.
1. Receiving Phenomena- Awareness,
willingness to hear, selected attention.
 Key words: Ask, choose, describe, follow,
give, hold, identify, locates, name, point to
select, sit, erect, reply, use.
 2. Responding to Phenomena- Active
participation on the parts of the learners.
 Examples:
 1. Participate in class discussions.
 2. Give a presentation.
 3. Question new ideas, concepts, and ,models
in order to fully understand them.
 4. Know the safety rules and practices them.
 Key words: answer, assist, aid, comply, conform,
discuss, greet, help, label, perform, practice,
present, read, recite, report, select, tell, write.
 3. Valuing- The worth or value a person attaches
to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior.
Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of
specified values, while clues to these values are
expressed in the learner’s overt behavior and are
often identifiable.
 Examples:
 A. Demonstrate belief in the democratic process.
Is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity)
 B. Show the ability to solve problems.
 C. Propose a plan to social improvement and
follows through with commitment.
 Key Words: complete, demonstrate,
differentiate, explain, follow, form, initiate,
invite, join, propose, read, report, select, share,
study, work.

 4. Organization- Organizes values into priorities

by contrasting different values, resolving
conflicts between them, and creating unique
value system. The emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values.
 Examples:
a. Recognize the need for balance between
freedom and responsible behavior.
b. Accept responsibility for one’s behavior.
c. Explain the role of systematic planning in
solving problems.
d. Accept professional ethical standards.
e. Create a life plan in harmony with abilities,
interests, and beliefs.
f. Prioritize time effectively to meet the needs of
the organization, family and self.
Key Words: adhere, alter, arrange, combine ,
compare, complete, defend, explain, formulate,
generalize, identify, integrate, modify, order,
prepare, relate, synthesize.
 5. Internalizing Values (characterization)- has
a value system that control their behavior.
 Examples:
 A. Show self-reliance when wirking
independently.
 B. Cooperate in group activities( dispalys
teamwork)
 C. Use an objective approach in problem
solving.

Key Words: Act, discriminate, display influnce,

listen, modify, perform, practice.
 Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical
movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas.

The seven major categories are listed from the

simplest behavior to the most complex:
1. Perception- the ability to use sensory cues to
guide motor activity.