Transducers for Displacement and

Temperature Measurements
 4.1 Basics of Transducers/sensors
 4.2 Displacement
 4.3 Temperature
 Basics of Transducers/sensors

 Characteristics of Transducers
 Requirement of Transducers
 Classification of Transducers
 Selection criteria of Transducers
 Sensors

 The primary sensing element (Sensor) is the first and

foremost requirement for measurement and
automatic controls.
 The sensors sense the condition ,state or value of the
process variable and produce an output which
reflects this condition , state or value.
 Examples

Sensor/detector
Sensor/detector
Transducer

 In Ordinary Dial  The function of a

Indicator- Bourdon Tube of a
pressure gauge is twofold
Indicating spinde acts 1. To sense the pressure
as a sensor/detector 2. To give the output in
the form of
displacement
Hence the tube acts as a
Sensor/detector
Transducer
 Transducer

 A transducer is a device that receives energy from

one system and transmits it to another , often in a
different form.
 The energy transmitted may be electrical,mechanical
or acoustical.
 In EIM a transducer performs the following
functions
1. Detects or senses the presence , magnitude and
changes in physical quantity being measured.
2. Provides a proportional electrical output signal.
 Classification of Transducers

Group A: Active & Passive Transducers

Group B: Analog & digital transducers
Group C: Electrical Principle
Active Transducers Passive Transducers

1. Self Generating type 1. Externally powered

Transducer.
transducer.
2. These transducers
develop their own 2. These transducers
voltage or current. derive the power
3. The energy required for
production of an output required for the
signal is obtained from energy conversion
the physical from an external
phenomenon being
measured power source.
Example of Active Example of Passive
Transducer Transducer

 Thermocouples  Resistance
 Piezoelectric pick up thermometers
 Photo voltaic cell  Thermistors
 Potentiometric Devices
 Differential
Transformer
 Photoemission Cell
Analog transducers Digital transducers

 These transducers convert  These transducers

the input physical
phenomenon into an convert the input
analogous output which is physical phenomenon
a continuous function of
time. into an electrical
Examples: output which may be in
 Strain Gauge the form of pulse.
 Thermocouple
 Thermistor
 LVDT
 Selection Criteria of a Transducer

The transducer/sensor has to be physically compatible with its

intended application.
1. Operating Range: chosen to maintain the range
requirements and good resolution
2. Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output
3. Frequency Response & Resonant Frequency: Flat over the
desired range
4. Accuracy: Repeatability & Calibration errors as well as
errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli
5. Usage & Ruggedness :Ability to withstand overloads
6. High Stability & Reliability: Minimum error in
measurement, unaffected by temperature, vibration and
environmental conditions.
 Classification based on electrical principle
involved

1. Variable Resistance Type:

Examples:
 Strain & Pressure Gauges
 Thermistors, Resistance Thermometers

2. Variable Inductance Type:

Examples:
 LVDT
 Reluctance pick up
 Eddy current Gauge

3.Variable Capacitance Type:

Examples:
 Capacitance Microphone
 Pressure Gauge
 Dielectric Gauge

4.Voltage Genearting Type:

Examples:
 Thermocouple
 Photovoltaic cell
 Piezoelectric pick up
 Basic Requirement of a Transducer

 Ruggedness
 Linearity
 Repeatability
 High output signal quality
 High Reliable & Stability
 Good dynamic response
 No residual deformation
 No hysterisis
 Displacement

 Potentiometers
 LVDT
 Resistance Strain Gauges
 Capacitance Sensors
 Displacement Transducer

 Displacement is the vector representing a change in

position of a body w.r.t a reference.
 It may be linear or rotational motion ,expressed in
absolute or relative terms.
 The magnitude of measurement ranges from a few
microns to a few cm in case of linear displacement.
 Displacement transducers can be classified on the
basis of transduction principle employed for
measurement.
 Potentiometers

 Potentiometric displacement transducer

 Resistive type
 The simplest linear displacement transducer is a linear
potentiometer.
 POTENTIOMETER

• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a

resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element in
helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
Features :
1. Simple and cheap
2. Accuracy depends on quality and dimension
of the resistive wire used or the quality of
the resistive film.
3. The force required to operate, although
small, depends on the size of the
potentiometer, but that required to start
movement of the slider is generally about
twice that to keep it in motion.
4. The frequency response is limited by the
mass of the system but small transducer can
have a flat response up to 50 or 60 Hz.
19
 Principle of operation

 A sliding contact (wiper) is made to move linearly

over a resistance element which may be in the form
of a wire or a conductive plastic film.
 The resistivity (0.4µΩ-m to 1.3 µΩ-m )and
temperature coefficient(0.002%/°C to 0.01 %/°C )of
the resistance element should be of such a value that
the device operates with appreciable constant
sensitivity over a wide temperature range.
FIGURE 5.1 Potentiometric displacement sensor.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Curtis Johnson
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e] All rights reserved.
 Constructional Features

 The three major elements in potentiometric device are

the winding wire, winding former and wiper.
 The winding wire is a precision drawn resistance wire
with a diameter of @ 25-50microns and is wound over a
cylindrical or a flat mandrel of ceramic, glass or
andodized aluminum.
 The wire should be strong, ductile and protected from
surface corrosion by enameling or oxidation.
 Materials commonly employed are alloys of copper-
nickel , nickel-chromium and silver-palladium.
 The winding can be linear , toroidal or helical and should
possess uniform spacing and constant tension.
 The wipers are spring elements made from tempered
phosphor-bronze , beryllium-copper and are shaped
to move over the resistance element with minimum
friction.
 Winding former are ceramic , steatite , andodized
aluminum with good dimensional stability and
surface insulation.
Main demerit :

1.The output is very noisy when the slider moves.

Cause of the noise are many: dirt and corrosion
on the wire; chatting and vibration of the slider
contact; variation of contact area as the slider
moves; resolution noise when the slider makes
and breaks contact with a turn of wire; etc.
2.Poor dynamic response,
3.Susceptabilty to vibration and shock
4.Poor resolution.

24
Sensitivity of Resistive
Transducer

DERIVATION OF GAUGE FACTOR

FIGURE 5.6 The LVDT has a movable core with the three coils as shown.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Curtis Johnson
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e] All rights reserved.
FIGURE 5.7 The LVDT secondary voltage amplitude for a series-opposition connection varies linearly with displacement.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Curtis Johnson
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e] All rights reserved.
Inductive type
An important displacement transducer used in
industrial and medical application is the linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT).

28
F. Coil former;
C. Movable core;
P. Primary winding;
S1 and S2. Secondary windings;
E1. Induced voltage in S1;
E2. Induced voltage in S2.
Eo. Output voltage E1 - E2
 displacement

(a) Absolute magnitude output voltage; (b) phase-referenced output voltage as a

function of LVDT core position

30
Characteristics:
1. Due to no moving contact (non-contact) hence very
low noise level. Resolution is excellent.
2. The frequency response is limited mechanically by
the mass of the core and electrically by the
frequency of the applied primary voltage (carrier),
the frequency of this carrier should be at last ten
times that of the highest frequency component to be
measured.

Demerits:
1. Quite expensive.
2. The operation can be severely affected by stray
magnetic A.C. fields or by the presence of large
mass of metal near by. 31
 LVDT

 LVDT is a device that outputs a bipolar voltage

linearly proportional to displacement.
 Displacements of core are converted directly into a
linearly proportional ac voltage.
 Variable Inductance Transducer

 Variation of inductance as a function of displacement

is achieved either by variation in mutual inductance
or self inductance .
 Devices operating on these principals are known as
linear variable differential transformers and variable
reluctance sensors resp.
 The extremely fine resolution ,high accuracy and
good stability make the device suitable as a position
measuring device.
 Construction

 LVDT consists of a primary coil and two identical

secondary coils, axially spaced and wound on a
cylindrical former,
with a rod shaped magnetic core positioned centrally
inside the coil assembly providing a preferred path
for the magnetic flux linking the coils.
 Principle

 When the primary coil is energized with an ac

carrier wave signal, voltages are induced in each
secondary section, the exact value depending upon
the position of the magnetic core w.r.t the centre of
the coil assembly.
 Working

 If the core is symmetrically placed (electrically) w.r.t

to the secondary coils, equal voltages are induced in
the two coils.
 When these two outputs are connected in phase
opposition , the magnitude of the resultant voltage
tends to a zero value. Such a balance point is termed
as null position.
 In practice a small residual voltage is always present
at a null position due to the presence of harmonics in
the exciting signal and stray capcitance coupling
between primary and secondary windings.
 When the core is now displaced from the null position
the induced voltage in the secondary towards which the
core has moved increases while that in the other
secondary decreases. This results in a differential voltage
output from the transformer.
 With proper design of coils, the magnitude of the output
signal is made to vary linearly with the mechanical
displacement of the core on both sides w.r.t the null
position.
 The phase difference between the o/p and i/p voltages
changes by 180° when core moves through the null
position.
 Advantages

 Mechanical
 Simple design
 Ease of fabrication and installation
 Wide range of displacement
 Frictionless movement of core
 Infinite resolution
 Rugged construction
 Negligible operating force
 Ability to operate at higher temperatures
 Electrical
 Output voltage is linear and continuous function of
mechanical displacement
 High sensitivity
 Ability to operate over a wide range of carrier
frequency (50hz to 20khz)
 Disadvantages

 Limitation when used for dynamic measurements

 Sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 Angular Displacement Measurement

 A rotary variable differential transformer is a very

convenient device for the measurement of angular
displacement.
 Same principle as LVDT.
 The output voltage varies linearly with the angular
position of the shaft.
 STRAIN GAUGE
 The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
 This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE

• The type of strain gauge are as

1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
 This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two
point in an insulating medium such as air. The wires
may be made of various copper, nickel, crome nickle or
nickle iron alloys.
 In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm
which is used for sensing the pressure. The wire are
tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the
compressive force.
 The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in
transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire
connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
 At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the bridge is
equal to zero.
 Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the
displacement increases a tension in two wire and decreases it in
the other two thereby increase the resistance of two wire which
are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two
wire .
 This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output
voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and hence
to the applied pressure .
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress
analysis and for construction of transducer.
 A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine
resistance wire. The grid is cemented to carrier which may be a
thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon.
 The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to
prevent it from any mechanical demage.
 The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen which permit a good transfer of strain from carrier to
grid of wires.
BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
 It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support
the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the
bond has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic
backing material on which the gauge is mounted .
.
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this
backing and adhesive material should be quick drying
type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which
have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent
 Contd.
 This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the
bonded metal wire strain gauges.
 The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
 Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain
gauge and are used for most general purpose stress
analysis application and for many transducers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
 Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge
factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change
in resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
 The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied
to it. The semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the
piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to change
in resistivity.
 Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for
semiconductor gauges.
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors
 The measurement of distances or displacements is an important
aspect of many industrial, scientific , and engineering systems.
 The displacement is basically the vector representing a change in
position of a body or point with respect to a reference point.
 Capacitive displacement sensors satisfy the requirements of
applications where high linearity and wide ranges (from a few
centimeters to a couple of nanometers)are needed.
 The basic sensing element of a typical displacement sensor consists
of two simple electrodes with capacitance C. The capacitance is a
function of the distance d (cm) between the electrodes of a
structure, the surface area A (cm2) of the electrodes, and the
permittivity ε (8.85 × 10–12 F m–1 for air) of the dielectric between
the electrodes;
 There are three basic methods for realizing a capacitive
displacement sensor: by varying d, A, or ε,
 Variable Distance Displacement Sensors

 A capacitor displacement sensor, made from two flat

coplanar plates with a variable distance x apart, is
illustrated in Figure
Capacitive methods
The capacitance of a capacitor can be changed by
varying its area, gap length or dielectric constant.

60
 · T he capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is given by:
 C = εo x εr x A/ d
 Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor or the variable capacitance transducer
 εo is the absolute permittivity
 εr is the relative permittivity
 The product of εo & εr is also called as the dielectric constant of the capacitive
transducer.
 A is the area of the plates
 D is the distance between the plates
 It is clear from the above formula that capacitance of the capacitive transducer
depends on the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. The
capacitance of the capacitive transducer also changes with the dielectric constant of
the dielectric material used in it.
 Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer can change with the
change of the dielectric material, change in the area of the plates and the distance
between the plates.
 Depending on the parameter that changes for the capacitive transducers, they are of
three types as mentioned below.
 ) Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive
Transducers
 The capacitance of the variable capacitance
transducer also changes with the area of the two
plates. This principle is used in the torquemeter,
used for measurement of the torque on the shaft.
This comprises of the sleeve that has teeth cut axially
and the matching shaft that has similar teeth at its
periphery.
 Changing Dielectric Constant type of
Capacitive Transducers
 Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive
Transducers
 In these capacitive transducers the distance between the
plates is variable, while the area of the plates and the
dielectric constant remain constant. This is the most
commonly used type of variable capacitance transducer. For
measurement of the displacement of the object, one plate of
the capacitance transducer is kept fixed, while the other is
connected to the object. When the object moves, the plate of
the capacitance transducer also moves, this results in change
in distance between the two plates and the change in the
capacitance. The changed capacitance is measured easily and
it calibrated against the input quantity, which is displacement.
This principle can also be used to measure pressure, velocity,
acceleration etc.
 Temperature

 RTD
 Thermistors
 Thermocouples
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
 Resistance of metal increase with increases in
temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
 Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction
of platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum
wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
 This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
 This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid
whose temperature is to be measured.
 THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are
made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of -100 to 300ºC Thermistor are
composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
magnese, nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
 Contd.
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature. In some cases the
resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC rise in
temperature.
 Measurement Technique using Thermistor

 The changes in the thermistor resistance due to

changes in temperature can be converted into
proportional voltage changes using standard
Wheatstone bridge.
 The voltage proportional to the resistance changes is
produced at the bridge output.
 This voltage can be applied to op-amp for
amplification and used it for controlling the
temperature.
 Advantages of Thermistors

 Small size,compact, rugged and inexpensive

 Fast response over narrow temperature range.
 Good sensitivity in NTC Region
 Disadvantages of Thermistors

 Temperature vs resistance characteristics is non-

linear.
 Need external dc power supply for its operation.
 Thermocouples

See beck Effect

When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends,
thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
Temperature Transducer
 Temperature Transducer

 Method based on change in resistance

 Method based on generation of thermo emf
 RTD(Resistance Temperature
Detectors)Principle of opeartion

 Resistance of the metal increases with increase in

temperature,therefore metals are said to have a
Positive Temperature Co-efficient of resistivity.
 Some semiconductor materials have a negative
temperature co-efficient of resistivity, resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
 Thus it is possible to convert the tempearture
variations into equivalent change in resistance.
 For Resistance thermometers they use metals such
as copper,nickel an platinum.
 RTD’s should have PTC.
 Advantages of RTD

 Used for measurement of small as well as large

tempearture differences.
 Measurement has high accuracy
 Good Dynamic Response
 Disadvantages of RTD

 Large Size
 High Cost
 External DC Power Source is required
 Need for bridge circuit and power source.