CHEMICAL REACTION

UNIT 4
MODULE 2
II. Learning Competencies
You should be able to:
1. Write chemical equations;
2. Apply the principles of conservation of mass to chemical
reactions;
3. Classify reactions according to the different types;
4. Identify the factors that affect reaction rates and explain them
according to collision theory; and
5. Explain how the factors affecting rates of chemical reactions
are applied in food preservation and materials production, fire
control, pollution, and corrosion
III. Pre-Assessment
1-5 Multiple Choice. Choose the correct answer.
1. During a chemical reaction,
a. Atoms are destroyed
b. Atoms are rearranged
c. Elements are destroyed
d. New elements are produced
2. A chemical reaction is a process in which
a. All reactants change state
b. Products change into reactants
c. The law of conservation of mass applies
d. All of these
III. Pre-Assessment
3. What determines an atom’s c. Adding coefficients
ability to undergo chemical d. Adding elements as necessary
reactions? 5. What are the products in the
a. Protons equation below?
b. Neutrons
Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
c. Innermost electrons
a. Zn and Cu
d. Outermost electrons
b. Zn and CuSO4
4. How is a chemical equation c. ZnSO4 + Cu
balanced? d. Zn only
a. Changing subscripts
b. Erasing elements as necessary
III. Pre-Assessment
6-10 Write true if the statement is correct and false if incorrect,
and change the underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
6. Generally, the higher the concentration of the reacting
substances, the faster is the reaction.
7. At lower temperature, chemical reactions occur at slower rates.
8. The bigger the surface area of the reactants, the faster the rate
of reaction.
9. Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a reaction
pathway with a higher activation energy.
10.The minimum energy required to start a reaction is called bond
energy.
IV. Chemical reaction

? How do you know if a certain change that has taken place

involves a CHEMICAL REACTION? What indicators/evidences
should be present to consider it a chemical reaction?
Review:
Substances undergo chemical bonding so that atoms can
become more stable. Chemical bonding results to breaking of
bonds and formation of new bonds, thus new substances are
formed. Formation of new substances means a chemical reaction
has taken place.
I. Introduction
Chemical Reaction, process by which atoms or groups of atoms
are redistributed, resulting in a change in the molecular composition
of substances. An example of a chemical reaction is formation of rust
(iron oxide), which is produced when oxygen in the air reacts with
iron.
The products obtained from a given set of reactants, or starting
materials, depend on the conditions under which a chemical reaction
occurs. Careful study, however, shows that although products may
vary with changing conditions, some quantities remain constant
during any chemical reaction. These constant quantities, called the
conserved quantities, include the number of each kind of atom
present, the electrical charge, and the total mass.
II. Chemical Symbols
All substances are made up of some combination of
atoms of the chemical elements. Rather than full names,
scientists identify elements with one- or two-letter symbols.
Some common elements and their symbols are carbon, C;
oxygen, O; nitrogen, N; hydrogen, H; chlorine, Cl; sulfur, S;
magnesium, Mg; aluminum, Al; copper, Cu; silver, Ag; gold, Au;
and iron, Fe.
II. Chemical Symbols
Most chemical symbols are derived from the letters in
the name of the element, most often in English, but
sometimes in German, French, Latin, or Russian. The first
letter of the symbol is capitalized, and the second (if any) is
lowercase. Symbols for some elements known from ancient
times come from earlier, usually Latin, names: for example, Cu
from cuprum (copper), Ag from argentum (silver), Au from
aurum (gold), and Fe from ferrum (iron). The same set of
symbols in referring to chemicals is used universally. The
symbols are written in Roman letters regardless of language.
II. Chemical Symbols
Symbols for the elements may be used merely as
abbreviations for the name of the element, but they are used
more commonly in formulas and equations to represent a
fixed relative quantity of the element. Often the symbol
stands for one atom of the element. Atoms, however, have
fixed relative weights, called atomic weights, so the symbols
often stand for one atomic weight of the element.
II. Chemical Symbols
The atomic weights (atomic wt.) of the elements are average atomic
weights of the elements as they occur in nature. Every chemical element
consists of atoms, the weights of which vary because of varying numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei. Atoms of the same element that differ in weight are
called isotopes of the element. An isotope's weight may be indicated by a
superscript to the left of the abbreviation that indicates the total number of
nucleons (protons plus neutrons) in the nucleus. The symbols 235U and 238U,
for example, represent two uranium isotopes of weight 235 and 238. The
symbols 1H, 2H, and 3H represent three hydrogen isotopes of weights 1, 2,
and 3. If no isotopic weight is indicated, the mean (weighted average) atomic
weight is indicated. All of these weights are in atomic mass units (amu). One
amu is defined as u of the mass of a 12C atom, the most common isotope of
carbon.
II. Chemical Symbols
An electrically neutral atom has equal numbers of
protons and electrons. Electrically charged atoms and groups
of atoms are called ions. When an atom is electrically
charged—that is, when it has lost or gained one or more
electrons, and thereby become an ion—that state may be
indicated by a superscript to the right of the symbol, as in H+,
Mg++, or Cl-. The symbol H+ indicates a singly positive hydrogen
ion, Mg++ a doubly positive magnesium ion, and Cl- a singly
negative chlorine ion.
II. Chemical Symbols
The atomic number of an element is equal to the
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element.
All isotopes of a particular element have the same number of
protons in their nuclei. The atomic number is sometimes
indicated by a lower-left subscript. The symbol °U3+ represents
a uranium ion of triply positive charge (that is, an atom that
has lost 3 electrons), with 92 protons and 146 neutrons (238
nucleons - 92 protons = 146 neutrons) in its nucleus, which is
surrounded by 89 electrons (92 - 3 = 89).
III. Chemical Formulas
An individual atom can be represented by the symbol of the
element, with the charge and mass of the atom indicated when
appropriate. Most substances, however, are compound, in that they
are composed of combinations of atoms. The formula for water, H2O,
indicates that two atoms of hydrogen are present for every atom of
oxygen. The formula shows that water is electrically neutral, and it also
indicates (because the atomic weights are H = 1.01, O = 16.00) that
2.02 unit weights of hydrogen will combine with 16.00 unit weights of
oxygen to produce 18.02 unit weights of water. Because the relative
weights remain constant, the weight units can be expressed in pounds,
tons, kilograms, or any other unit so long as each weight is expressed in
the same unit as the other two.
III. Chemical Formulas
Similarly, the formula for carbon dioxide is CO2; for
gasoline, C8H18; for oxygen, O2; and for candle wax, CH2. The
subscripts in each case (with a 1 understood if no subscript is
given) show the relative number of atoms of each element in
the substance. CO2 has 1 C for every 2 Os, and CH2 has 1 C for
every 2 Hs. But why write O2 and C8H18 rather than simply O
and C4H9, which show the same atomic and weight ratios?
III. Chemical Formulas
Experiments show that atmospheric oxygen consists not of single
atoms (O) but of molecules made up of pairs of atoms (O2); molecules of
gasoline consist of carbon and hydrogen ratios of C8 and H18 rather than any
other combinations of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. The formulas of
atmospheric oxygen and gasoline are examples of molecular formulas. Water
consists of H2O molecules, and carbon dioxide consists of CO2 molecules.
Thus, H2O and CO2 are molecular formulas. Candle wax (CH2), on the other
hand, is not made up of molecules each containing 1 carbon atom and 2
hydrogen atoms. It actually consists of very long chains of carbon atoms,
with most of the carbon atoms bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms in addition to
being bonded to 2 neighbouring carbon atoms in the chain. Such formulas,
which give the correct relative atomic composition but do not give the
molecular formula, are called empirical formulas.
III. Chemical Formulas
All formulas that are multiples of simpler ratios can be
assumed to represent molecules: The formulas N2, H2, H2O2,
and C2H6 represent nitrogen gas, hydrogen gas, hydrogen
peroxide, and ethane. However, formulas that show the
simplest possible atomic ratios must be assumed to be
empirical unless evidence exists to the contrary. The formulas
NaCl and Fe2O3, for example, are empirical; the former
represents sodium chloride (table salt) and the latter iron
oxide (rust), but no single molecules of NaCl or Fe2O3 are
present.
IV. Chemical Equation
Chemical symbols and formulas are used to describe
chemical reactions; they denote substances having one set of
formulas changing into substances having another set of
formulas. Consider the chemical reaction in which methane,
or natural gas (formula CH 4), burns in oxygen (O2), to form
carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). If we assume that only
these four substances are involved, the formulas (used mainly
as abbreviations for names) would be stated:
IV. Chemical Equation
Because atoms are conserved in chemical reactions,
however, the same numbers of atoms must appear on both
sides of the equation. Therefore, the reaction might be
expressed as
IV. Chemical Equation
Chemists substitute an arrow for “gives” and delete all
the “1's” to get the balanced chemical equation:

Electrical charges and numbers of each kind of atom are

conserved.
IV. Chemical Equation
Balanced chemical equations are balanced not only with
respect to charge and numbers of each kind of atom but also
with respect to weight, or, more correctly, to mass. The
periodic table lists these atomic weights: C = 12.01, H = 1.01,
O = 16.00. So we can identify each atomic symbol with an
appropriate mass:
IV. Chemical Equation
IV. Chemical Equation
Thus, 16.05 atomic mass units (amu) of CH4 react with
64.00 amu of O2 to produce 44.01 amu of CO2 plus 36.04
amu of H2O. Or 1 mole of methane reacts with 2 moles of
oxygen to produce 1 mole of carbon dioxide plus 2 moles of
water. The total mass on each side of the equation is
conserved:

Thus charge, atoms, and mass are all conserved.

IV. Chemical Bonding
When two or more atoms are brought close enough, an
attractive force between the electrons of individual atoms and
the nuclei of one or more of the other atoms can result. If this
force is large enough to keep the atoms together, a chemical
bond is said to be formed. All chemical bonds result from the
simultaneous attraction of one or more electrons by more
than one nucleus.
IV. A. Types of Bond
If the bonded atoms are of metallic elements, the bond
is said to be metallic. The electrons are shared between the
atoms but are able to move through the solid to give electrical
and thermal conductivity, luster, malleability, and ductility.
IV. A. Types of Bond
If the bonded atoms are nonmetals and identical (as in
N2 or O2), the electrons are shared equally between the two
atoms, and the bond is called nonpolar covalent. If the atoms
are nonmetals but differ (as in nitric oxide, NO), the electrons
are shared unequally and the bond is called polar covalent—
polar because the molecule has a positive and a negative
electric pole much like the north and south poles of a magnet,
and covalent because the atoms share electrons between
them, even though unequally. These substances are not
electrical conductors, nor do they have luster, ductility, or
malleability.
IV. A. Types of Bond
When a molecule of a substance contains atoms of both
metals and nonmetals, the electrons are more strongly
attracted to the nonmetals, which become negatively charged
ions; the metals become positively charged ions. The ions
then attract their opposites in charge, forming ionic bonds.
Ionic substances conduct electricity when they are in the
liquid state or in water solutions, but not in the crystalline
state, because individual ions are too large to move freely
through the crystal.
IV. A. Types of Bond
Symmetrical sharing of electrons gives either metallic or
nonpolar covalent bonds; unsymmetrical sharing gives polar
covalent bonds; electron transfer gives ionic bonds. The
tendency for unequal distribution of electrons between pairs
of atoms generally increases as they are farther apart in the
periodic table.
IV. A. Types of Bond
For the formation of stable ions and of covalent bonds,
the most common pattern is for each atom to achieve the
same total number of electrons as the noble gas—Group 18
(or VIIIa)—element closest to it in the periodic table. The
metals in Groups 1 (or Ia) and 11 (or Ib) of the periodic table
tend to lose one electron to form singly positive ions; those in
Groups 2 (or IIa) and 12 (or IIb) tend to lose two electrons to
form doubly positive ions; and similarly for Groups 3 (or IIIb)
and 13 (or IIIa).
IV. A. Types of Bond
Likewise, the halogens, Group 17 (or VIIa), tend to gain
one electron to form singly negative ions, and elements of
Group 16 (or VIa) to form doubly negative ions. As the net
charge on an ion increases, however, the ion becomes less
stable with respect to sharing electrons with other atoms, so
most large apparent charges (as in MnO2, +4 and -2,
respectively) would be minimized by covalent sharing of
electrons.
IV. A. Types of Bond
Covalent bonds form when both atoms lack the number
of electrons in the nearest noble gas atom. Neutral chlorine
atoms, for example, have one less electron per atom than do
krypton atoms (35 versus 36). When two chlorine atoms form
a covalent bond sharing two electrons (one from each atom),
both achieve the krypton number of 36, Cl:Cl. It is common to
represent a shared pair of electrons by a straight line between
the atom symbols: Cl:Cl is written Cl=Cl.
IV. A. Types of Bond
Similarly, atomic nitrogen is three electrons short of the
neon number (ten), but each nitrogen can get the neon
number if six electrons are shared between them: N:::N or
N===N. This is called a triple bond. Sulfur, in the same way,
can achieve the krypton number by sharing four electrons in a
double bond, S::S or S==S. In carbon dioxide, both the carbon
(with six of its own electrons) and oxygen (with eight) achieve
the neon number (ten) by sharing with double bonds:
O==C==O. In all these bonding formulas, only the shared
electrons are shown.
IV. A. Types of Bond
Similarly, atomic nitrogen is three electrons short of the
neon number (ten), but each nitrogen can get the neon
number if six electrons are shared between them: N:::N or
N===N. This is called a triple bond. Sulfur, in the same way,
can achieve the krypton number by sharing four electrons in a
double bond, S::S or S==S. In carbon dioxide, both the carbon
(with six of its own electrons) and oxygen (with eight) achieve
the neon number (ten) by sharing with double bonds:
O==C==O. In all these bonding formulas, only the shared
electrons are shown.
IV. B. Valence
In most atoms, many of the electrons are so firmly
attracted to their own nucleus that they can have no
appreciable interaction with other nuclei. Only those electrons
on the “outside” of an atom can interact with two or more
nuclei. These are called valence electrons.
IV. B. Valence
The number of valence electrons in an atom is indicated by
the atom's periodic table family (or group) number, using only the
older Roman numeral designation. Thus we have one valence
electron for elements in Groups 1 (or Ia) and 11 (or Ib). There are
two valence electrons for elements in Groups 2 (or IIa) and 12 (or
IIb), and four for elements in Groups 4 (or IVb) and 14 (or IVa).
Each of the noble gas atoms elements except helium (that is, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) has eight valence electrons.
Elements in families (groups) near the noble gases tend to react to
form noble gas sets of eight valence electrons. This is known as the
Lewis Rule of Eight, which was enunciated by the American
chemist Gilbert N. Lewis.
IV. B. Valence
The exception, helium (He), has a set of two valence electrons. Elements
near helium tend to acquire a valence set of two: hydrogen by gaining one electron,
lithium by losing one, and beryllium by losing two electrons. Hydrogen typically
shares its single electron with one electron from another atom to form a single
bond; such as in hydrogen chloride, H--Cl. The chlorine, originally with seven
valence electrons, now has eight. These valence electrons can be shown as or . The
structures of N2 and CO2 may now be expressed as or and or . These so-called
Lewis structures show noble gas valence electron sets of eight for each atom.
Probably 80 percent of all covalent compounds can be reasonably represented by
Lewis electron structures. The remainder, especially those containing elements in
the central region of the periodic table, often cannot be described in terms of
noble gas structures.
IV. C. Types of Chemical
Reaction
An understanding of reaction mechanisms can be gained
from a study of ionic and covalent bonding. One kind of reaction,
ion matching, is easy to understand as due to the pairing (or
dissociation) of ions to form (or dissociate) neutral ionic
substances, as in Ag+ + Cl-⇋AgCl, or 3 Ca2+ + 2 PO43+⇋
Ca3(PO4)2, where the double arrow (instead of an equal sign)
emphasizes the two possible directions of reaction. Covalent single
bond changes in which both electrons come from (or go to) one
reactant are called acid-base reactions, as in
IV. C. Types of Chemical
Reaction
A pair of electrons from the base enter an empty
electron orbital of the acid to form the covalent bond (see
Acids and Bases). Covalent single bond changes in which one
bonding electron comes from (or goes to) each reactant are
called free radical reactions, as in H· + ·H ⇋H8H.
IV. C. Types of Chemical
Reaction
Sometimes reactants gain and lose electrons, as in oxidation-
reduction, or redox, reactions: 2 Fe2+ + Br2⇋ 2 Fe3+ + 2 Br-. Thus, in
an oxidation-reduction reaction, one reactant is oxidized (loses
one or more electrons) and the other reactant is reduced (gains
one or more electrons). Common examples of redox reactions
involving oxygen are the rusting of metals such as iron (in which
case the metals are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen), combustion,
and the metabolic reactions associated with respiration. An
example of a redox reaction that does not involve atmospheric
oxygen is the reaction that produces electricity in the lead storage
battery: Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42- = 2PbSO4 + 2H2O.
IV. C. Types of Chemical
Reaction
The joining of two groups is also called addition; their
separation is called decomposition. Multiple addition involving
many identical molecules is called polymerization.
EVIDENCES OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
When a physical change occurs there is no breaking and
forming of bonds. There are certain things that will help us identify
if a chemical reaction has taken place. We call these evidences of
chemical reactions.
1. Production of light
2. Evolution of gas
3. Temperature change
4. Change in intrinsic properties (odor, color)
5. Formation of precipitate
IV. D. Chemical Energetics
Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. If stronger bonds
form in the products than are broken in the reactants, heat is
released to the surroundings, and the reaction is termed
exothermic. If stronger bonds break than are formed, heat must
be absorbed from the surroundings, and the reaction is
endothermic. Because strong bonds are more apt to form than
weak bonds, spontaneous exothermic reactions are common—for
example, the combustion of carbon-containing fuels with air to
give CO2 and H2O, both of which possess strong bonds.
Spontaneous endothermic reactions, however, are also well
known; the dissolving of salt in water is one example.
IV. D. Chemical Energetics
Endothermic reactions are always associated with the
spreading, or the dissociation, of molecules. This can be
measured as an increase in the entropy of the system. The net
effect of the tendency for strong bonds to form and the
tendency of molecules and ions to spread out, or dissociate,
can be measured as the change in free energy of the system.
All spontaneous changes at constant pressure and
temperature involve an increase in free energy, with a large
increase in bond strength, or a large increase in spreading out,
or both.
IV. D. Chemical Rates and
Mechanisms
Some reactions, such as explosions, occur rapidly. Other
reactions, such as rusting, take place slowly. Chemical kinetics, the
study of reaction rates, shows that three conditions must be met
at the molecular level if a reaction is to occur: The molecules must
collide; they must be positioned so that the reacting groups are
together in a transition state between reactants and products; and
the collision must have enough energy to form the transition state
and convert it into products.
Fast reactions occur when these three criteria are easy to
meet. If even one is difficult, however, the reaction is typically
slow, even though the change in free energy permits a
spontaneous reaction.
IV. D. Chemical Rates and
Mechanisms
Rates of reaction increase in the presence of catalysts,
substances that provide a new, faster reaction mechanism but are
themselves regenerated so that they can continue the process (see
Catalysis). Mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen gases at room
temperature do not explode. But the introduction of powdered
platinum leads to an explosion as the platinum surface becomes
covered with adsorbed oxygen. The platinum atoms stretch the
bonds of the O2 molecules, weakening them and lowering the
activation energy. The oxygen atoms then react rapidly with
hydrogen molecules, colliding with them, forming water, and
regenerating the catalyst. The steps by which a reaction occurs are
called the reaction mechanism.
IV. D. Chemical Rates and
Mechanisms
Rates of reaction can be changed not only by catalysts
but also by changes in temperature and by changes in
concentrations. Raising the temperature increases the rate by
increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules of the
reactants, thereby increasing the likelihood of transition states
being achieved. Increasing the concentration can increase the
reaction rate by increasing the rate of molecular collisions.
IV. E. Chemical Equilibrium
As a reaction proceeds, the concentration of the
reactants usually decreases as they are used up. The rate of
reaction will, therefore, decrease as well. Simultaneously, the
concentrations of the products increase, so it becomes more
likely that they will collide with one another to reform the
initial reactants. Eventually, the decreasing rate of the forward
reaction becomes equal to the increasing rate of the reverse
reaction, and net change ceases. At this point the system is
said to be at chemical equilibrium. Forward and reverse
reactions occur at equal rates.
IV. E. Chemical Equilibrium
Changes in systems at chemical equilibrium are
described by Le Châtelier's principle, named after the French
scientist Henri Louis Le Châtelier: Any attempt to change a
system at equilibrium causes it to react so as to minimize the
change. Raising the temperature causes endothermic
reactions to occur; lowering the temperature leads to
exothermic reactions. Raising the pressure favors reactions
that lower the volume, and vice versa. Increasing any
concentration favors reactions using up the added material;
decreasing any concentration favors reactions forming that
material.
IV. E. Chemical Equilibrium
V. Chemical Synthesis
The principal goals of synthetic chemistry are to create new
chemical substances and to develop better, less-expensive
methods for the synthesis of known substances. Sometimes simply
purifying naturally occurring substances is sufficient either to
obtain an important chemical or to increase use of that chemical
as a starting material for other syntheses. For instance, the
pharmaceutical industry often depends, for the source of starting
materials in the synthesis of important medicines, upon the
complicated organic chemicals found in crude oil. More commonly,
especially for rare or expensive naturally occurring substances, it is
necessary to synthesize the substance from less-expensive or
more-available raw materials.
V. Chemical Synthesis
One task of synthetic chemistry, then, is to produce
additional amounts of substances already found in nature.
Examples are the recovery of copper metal from its ores and
the syntheses of certain naturally occurring medicines (such as
aspirin) and vitamins (such as ascorbic acid—vitamin C). A
second task is to synthesize materials not found in nature,
such as steel, plastics, ceramics (space shuttle tiles, for
example) and adhesives.
V. Chemical Synthesis
Some 11 million chemical compounds are now cataloged
with the Chemical Abstracts Service in Columbus, Ohio; about
2000 new ones are synthesized every day. Some 6000 are in
commercial production, with new compounds coming into the
market at the rate of about 300 per year. Each new compound
is tested not only for its benefits and intended use, but also
for any potentially harmful effects on humans and the
environment before it is allowed to go into the market.
Determining toxicity is made difficult and expensive by the
wide variance in toxic dose levels among humans, plants, and
animals and by the difficulty of measuring the effects of long-
term exposure.
V. Chemical Synthesis
Synthetic chemistry was not developed as a sophisticated and
highly rigorous science until well into the 20th century. Until then, the
synthesis of a substance was often first accomplished by accident, and
the uses of these new materials were limited. The sketchy theoretical
ideas prior to the turn of the century also limited chemists' ability to
develop systematic approaches to synthesis. In contrast, it is now
possible to design new chemical substances to fill specific needs, (for
example, medicines, structural materials, or fuels), to synthesize in the
laboratory almost any substance found in nature, to invent and prepare
new compounds, and even to predict, based on sophisticated
computer modeling, either the properties of a “target” molecule or its
long-term effects in medicine or in the environment.
V. Chemical Synthesis
Much of the recent progress in synthesis rests on the ability of scientists to
determine the detailed structure of a range of substances and to understand the
correlations between a molecule's structure and its properties, or structure-activity
relationships. In fact, the likely structures and properties of a series of target
molecules can now be modeled ahead of their synthesis, giving scientists a better
understanding of the types of substances most needed for a given purpose.
Modern penicillin drugs are synthetic modifications of the substance first observed
in nature by the British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming. More than 1000 human
diseases have been identified as stemming from molecular deficiencies, and many
can be treated by remedying that deficiency using synthetic pharmaceuticals. Much
of the search for new fuels and for methods of using solar energy is based on the
study of the molecular properties of synthetic materials. One of the most recent
accomplishments of this type is the fabrication of superconductors based on the
structure of complicated inorganic ceramic materials, such as YBa2Cu3O7 and other
structurally similar materials.
V. Chemical Synthesis
It is now possible to synthesize hormones, enzymes, and
genetic material identical to that found in living systems,
thereby increasing the possibility of treating the root causes of
human illness by genetic engineering. This has been made
easier in recent years by computer-assisted design of
syntheses and by the powerful modeling capabilities of
modern computers.
V. Chemical Synthesis
One of the most successful recent developments in
synthetic biochemistry has been the routine use of simple
living systems, such as yeasts, bacteria, and molds, to produce
important substances. The biochemical synthesis of biological
materials is now possible. Escherichia coli bacteria, for
example, are used to produce human insulin. Yeasts are also
used to produce alcohol, and molds are used to produce
penicillin.