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BASIC CONCEPTS
FORCES AND VECTORS
• Force is any action which alters, or tends to alter
• Newton II law of motion : F=Ma
• Unit force : kgm/s2 = newton (N) or dyne = gram cm/s2; N = 105 dynes

(a). Force: vector quantity with magnitude and direction

(b). Resolving by the parallelogram of forces

Two Types of Force

• Body Forces (i.e. gravitational force)
• Contact Forces (i.e. loading)

Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)

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Force Equilibrium

(A) Balance

(B) Torque

(C) Static Equilibrium

(D) Dynamic Equilibrium

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

STRESS

Stress defined as force per unit area:

 = F/A
A = area, Stress units = Psi, Newton (N),
Pascal (Pa) or bar (105 Pa)

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

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STRESS
• Stress at a point in 2D

Stress ()
• Types of stress

Normal stress (N)

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (S)

(+) (-)

STRESS on PLANE

• Coordinate System

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Stress Ellipsoid

a) Triaxial stress

b) Principal planes of
the ellipsoid

(Modified from Means, 1976)

z 
The State of 3

x

Two-Dimensional
Stress at Point

A. Stress elipse


3
X3 X1

Principal Stress:
1  
B. Principal stress components Principal coordinate
axes and planes
(top)
zz
(top)
z  x, z = Surface Stress
Z
(top)
zx 
x
(rt)

 (lft)
(lft) xz
dz
xx
dx (rt) (rt) X
xz xx
(lft) (bot)
x zx

(bot)
z
 (bot) Arbitrary
zz coordinate axes and
planes
C. General stress components

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The State of
3-Dimensional
Stress at Point Principal Stress:
A. Stre ss elipsoid
1    
x3
z
x1
 
Princ ipal
coordinate planes
z Stress Tensor Notation

11 12 13
 21 22 23
y

x2
=
y
x
B. Principal stress components x
31 32 33
z
Arbitrary
coordinate planes
z z z
12 = 21, 13 = 31 , 23 = 32
z x
z y
yx
y
xy
 yy
xz yz
xx

y
x

x
C. General s tress components
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

Geologic Sign
Convention of
Stress Tensor

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

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Mohr Diagram 2-D

A. Physical Diagram A. Mohr Diagram

x
s
n 


(p)
n , s
(p)

s(p )
 sin 
r
n(p )


2  (p) 
 x  n n
(p
s
)
n 

Plane P
   
2 2


 
2
cos 

Mohr Diagram 2-D

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

x1 s
n
 
(p')
n , (p') 
n'  p' s
 (p)
n , (p
s ) 

p 
   n
x3 n

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

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Mohr Diagram 2-D

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

x1
x s


  º) xx
z xx' x z
 xz  zz
   º)  xz
  n
zx

x

 

zz' z x
xx z z 
xx  zz
2

Mohr Diagram 2-D

Planes of maximum shear stress

A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram

s
x x
 = +4 5º Planes of ma ximum ' = +4 5º
s max
shear stre ss Cou nter clockwise
n+ n-
 

   x  x    º 

s s n

'  º

Counte rcloc kwise C lockwise s max

shear stre ss shear stre ss Clock wise

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

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Mohr Diagram 3-D

Geometry of a three-dimensional
Stress on a Mohr diagram

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

Mohr Diagram 3-D

Maximum Shear Stress

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

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FUNDAMENTAL STRESS EQUATIONS

Principal Stress:
1    
• All stress axes are mutually perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the direction of
principal stress

1 + 3 1 – 3
N = + cos 2
2 2

1 –3
s = Sin 2
2
Stress Ellipsoid

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

• Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress

• Mean stress is hydrostatic component which tends to produce dilation
• Deviatoric stress is non hydrostatic which tends to produce distortion
• Differential stress, if greater is potential for distortion

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STRESS

1. Gaya yang bekerja tergantung besarnya material yang terkena gaya

tersebut (grafitasi)
2. Stress adalah Sataun gaya persatuan luas
3. Stress pada suatu titik dapat terbagi dua yaitu :
• Stress Normal
• Stress Geser
4. Asumsi Struktur Geologi pada suatu titik bersifat isotropic dan
homogen.
5. Vektor Stress pada 3D merupakan stres ellipsoid yang memiliki tiga
arah orthogonal stres dan tiga bidang utama.
6. Prinsip stress 1>2>3
7. Diagram Mohr adalah grafik yang menerangkan Stress pada suatu
batuan

STRESS vs. STRAIN

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Relationship Between Stress and Strain

• Evaluate Using Experiment of Rock

Deformation
• Rheology of The Rocks
• Using Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Measuring Shortening
• Measuring Strain Rate
• Strength and Ductility

Stress – Strain Diagram

Yield Stre ngth
400 After St rain
Harden ing Ultimate
D Strength
C E
B

300 A
Yield
Strength
Rep
Rept ture
Strength
St
DifferentialStress(in MPa)

200

100

1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain (in%)

A. Onset plastic deformation

B. Removal axial load
C. Permanently strained
D. Plastic deformation
E. Rupture

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Effects of Temperature and Differential Stress

2000

140
130
25ºC

1500

Differential Stress (in MPa)

30 0
80
Differential Stress, MPa

70
60
300ºC
20 0
40 1000

20
500ºC
10 0

500
Crown Point Limestone
700ºC
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
800ºC
Strain, percent
0
5 10 15 Strain (in %)

Deformation and Material

A. Elastic strain
B. Viscous strain
C. Viscoelastic strain
D. Elastoviscous
E. Plastic strain

Hooke’s Law: e = /E, E = Modulus Young or elasticity (Modified from Park, 1989)

Newtonian :  =    viscosity,  = strain-rate

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Effect increasing stress to strain-rate

(Modified from Park, 1989)

Stress Strain

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Limitation of The Concept of Stress in Structural Geology

• No quantitative relationship between

stress and permanent strain
• Paleostress determination contain
errors
• No implication equation relating
stress to strain rate that causes the
deformation

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