Unit I

Principles of Classification
What is the need for classification?

• Group and name organisms according to a standardized system

• Understand the diversity of the living organisms

• Identification of a new organism

• Classification makes things easier to find, identify, and study.

• Study of the relationships between different organisms

Taxonomy

Theory and Practice of classifying organisms.

Systematics

Scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and

relationships between them.

Classification

Ordering the organisms into groups based on their similarities

and dissimilarities.
Three different types of classification

1) Artificial system
• Characters of convenience without relation to physiological significance
• Animals classified into 1) animals that fly 2) animals that cannot fly
2) Natural system
• Classification based on characters which indicate natural relationships
• Organisms of a natural systematic category agree with another in so many
characters because they are descendants of one common ancestor
3) Phylogenetic system
• Evolutionary and genetic relationship of the organisms
• Enables to find out ancestors and derivatives of any taxon
Linnaean hierarchy

• The classification of organisms had been done long before Linnaeus.

• He was the first scientist to come up with a simple method of classifying organisms
based on their morphological similarities.

He suggested the organization of the living things in the form of hierarchy.

The Linnaean hierarchy consists of grouping the living things into

Kingdom , Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

• This method is not considered an accurate classification as it does not account for
organisms that might belong in different groups.
• It does not take into account the genetic relationships.
• Organisms classified according to Linnaean classification might not be related
genetically.
Kingdom

• All living organisms are placed into kingdoms.

• Linnaeus originally defined only two kingdoms, Plantae and Animalia.
• This system did not include many organisms that do not fall into either of the
categories.
• Whittaker proposed the five kingdom classification.
• The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
• Further changes have taken place in the classification of kingdoms, but many zoologists
stick to the five kingdom classification.
• The organisms in a kingdom have similar characteristics.

Phylum

The Kingdom is further divided into phylum based on similarities.

• For Eg: The organisms that do not have a notochord are grouped under the phylum
invertebrata
• Organisms having a notochord are grouped under Vertebrata.
The presence or absence of similar features groups the organisms into different Phyla
Class
• The phylum is further divided into smaller groups called the class
• Eg: The phylum, Vertebrata is divided into pisces, amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammals,
primarily based on their habitat and whether they are terrestrial or aquatic or both.

Order

• Each class is further divided into smaller groups knows as the order
• Eg : In Mammals, the organisms that can climb trees have been placed in the order Primata

Family

• Each order is further divided into smaller groups of families based on their similarities
• Eg: The order Carnivora includes many families such as Felidae, Canidae etc

Genus
• A genus is a group of organisms that have many similarities. Many such genera are grouped into
family based on similar characteristics
• Eg: Lion, Tiger, Leopard are grouped under the same genus due to their unique cranial formation.
Species

• Species is the basic unit of classification.

• It is the unique identification of an organism.
• Species are further classified as sub-species based on the habitat and the ecological niches the
organism occupies.
• There were various concepts proposed to define species.

Typological Species Concept

• Species were considered to be immutable, distinct entity, before the advent of Darwin.
• Defined by fixed morphological characteristics
• New organisms compared with the type specimen.
• Any differences observed were considered to be imperfections, rather than give them a logical
explanation

Biological Species

• A species is defined as a reproductive community of organisms that occupy a specific niche in

nature
• Does not account for the asexually reproducing organisms
• Fossil specimens cannot be assigned as the definition includes reproductive qualities.
Evolutionary Species Concept

• Includes the time dimension.

• Species defined as a single lineage of ancestor-descendant population that maintains its identity
from other lineages and has its own evolutionary trends and historical fate.
• Accounts for the asexually reproducing organisms also
• Fossil specimens can also be classified based on their morphological similarities to the existing
animals.

Phylogenetic Species Concept

• Species defined as the basal grouping of organisms, distinct from other groupings, within which
there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent.

• The evolutionary species concept considers any evolutionary changes in an organisms as one
species, whereas the phylogenetic concept also groups the evolved organisms into a smaller group.

• The phylogenetic species concept creates more species than any other concept, as it recognizes
every evolved species as a separate entity.
Some more definitions of Species

It has already been stated that individual organisms which have many features in common and are
able to breed only amongst themselves are encompassed by the term species.
Allopatric species: The species inhabiting different geographical areas.
Sympatric species: The species normally occupying the same geographical areas.
Morphospecies: These are ones established by the morphological similarity regardless of other
considerations
Bio-species and genetical species: A group of inter-breeding populations which are
reproductively isolated from other such group.
Sibling species: It is a term applied to pairs or groups of very similar and closely related species.
When applied to closely related species (in phylogenetic sense) this expression refers to
hypothetical species, these cannot be dealt with in taxonomy but can be useful in speculations on
evolution.
Taxonomic species: A species which has been provided a specific name under the International
Rules of Nomenclature.
Evolutionary species: These are lineages (ancestral descendent sequences of populations) evolving
separately from each other and with their own unitary evolutionary roles and tendencies.
Polytypic species: Polytypic species are those which consist of two or more subspecies.
Monotypic species: Monotypic species consist of a single subspecies.
Binomial Nomenclature

• Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus

• Formal method of naming organisms with a name in two parts in Latin

• The first part of the name consist of the genus and the second part of the name is the species

• The genus is always capitalized whereas the species is written in small letters

• The scientific name should be italicized or underlined.

• The binomial nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Zoological nomenclature

• The Binomial nomenclature ensures that there is no ambiguity in the organism being studied.

• It provides an unique identification for the animal.

• There is a stability in the name used universally.

• Binomial for the specific name and trinomial for sub-specific name
• Name of genus is a single word in a nominative singular and begins with a capital letter
• Name of species may be single or compound and begins with small letter
• Name of author who first published it should follow the species name and should rarely
be abbreviated and is printed in roman type
• Scientific names of plants and animals are different
• Names must be in Latin and usually printed in italic
• No two genera can have same name and no two species in a genera can have the same
name
• Only the first published is recognized
• Name must retain its original spelling , obvious errors and misprints may be corrected
• Name may be based on any part of animal or plant and any stage of an organism in its
life history
Classification Of Humans
Reasons for divergence in species

Adaptive radiation

• Diversification of species into different lines as they adapt to the changes

in ecological niches and ultimately evolve into distinct species.
• Natural selection is the principal mechanism driving this change.
• Biologists classified the animals based on the visible similarity and dissimilarity.
• The similar the physical similarity, the closer the organisms were assumed to be.
• They also looked for a common ancestor if the organisms are similar.

Homologies

• Homologies are anatomical features of different organisms that have a similar function or
appearance due to a common ancestor.
Example 1:
• The forelimb of a bear, wing of a bird, human arm have the same functional type of bones, as
seen in the reptilian ancestor they share.

Example 2 :
• The mouthparts and the antennae of different insects such as the grasshopper, the honeybee, the
butterfly and the mosquito consists of the same structures but are used for different purposes.
• The grasshopper primarily bites and chews while the honeybee bites and the butterfly sucks
pollen.

The more homologies the organisms possess, the more likely that they have a genetic relationship
 Homologous Structures

Homologous mouthparts in insects

Homologous bones in mammals
Homoplasies
• Similarities between organisms which are not
due to a common ancestor are knowns as
homoplasies.
• Homoplastic structures can be a result of
parallelism , convergence or unexplained
phenomenon

Parallelism or Parallel evolution

• Similar evolutionary development in different
species after divergence from a common
ancestor that did not have the characteristic
but had the initial anatomical feature that led
to it.

Example: South American and African monkeys

are larger compared to their ancestor.
They evolved independent to each other
Convergence
• The development of a similar anatomical feature
in distinct species after divergence from a
common ancestor that did not have the initial
trait that led to it.

Example
• North American wolves and Tasmanian wolves
have similar appearance and predatory behavior.
They seem to have evolved from a common
ancestor, the dinosaur.
• North American wolves are placental mammals
whereas the Tasmanian wolves are marsupials.
• Fishes on both sides of the poles have developed
an anti-freeze mechanism to cope up with the
cold temperatures.
Analogies
Anatomical features that have the same form or function in different species that have no
common ancestor.
Example : Wings of a bird and wings of a butterfly.
Superficially similar in shape and function, but different on the inside.

Analogies may be due to homologies or homoplasies. Mostly there is no known common

ancestor.
Basis of classification

Body plans that define the animal diversity and the common architectural theme
for the classification of organisms

Animal body plans are differ in grades of organization, Body symmetry, Number of
embryonic germ layers and Number of body cavities.

1) Grades of organization in organismal complexity

• Protoplasmic grade of organization

• Cellular grade of organization
• Tissue grade of organization
• Organ grade of organization
• Organ system grade of organization
i) Protoplasmic grade of organization

• Characterizes unicellular organisms.

• Contains specialized organelles for all functions.

ii) Cellular grade of organization

• Aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated.

• Division of labor where some aggregates of cells are for reproductive purposes and others
for somatic purposes

Eg: Flagellates like Volvox, Sponges

iii) Tissue grade of organization

• Aggregation of cells into layers with differentiated functions.

• Eg: Some Sponges and some Cnidarians
• Nerve net in cnidarians is an example of tissue differentiation
iv) Organ grade of organization

• Organs made of more than one type of

tissue.
• Specialized function.
• Example : In Platyhelminthes, well
defined organs such as proboscis, eye
spots and reproductive organs are
observed.

v) Organ system grade of organization

• Organs work together to perform a

function.
• Highest level of organization found in
most phyla in animals.
• Systems are developed for digestive,
respiratory, circulatory and other
functions of the body.
2) Animal symmetry

Symmetry refers to balanced proportions, or correspondence in size and shape of parts

on opposite sides of a median plane.
A few animals have no body axis or plane of symmetry. They are said to be asymmetrical

i) Spherical symmetry
• Any plane passing through the center divides a body into equivalent or mirrored
halves
• Chiefly found in unicellular forms
• Best suited for floating and rolling
ii) Radial Symmetry

• Forms that divide into similar halves by more than two

planes passing through longitudinal axis
• Tubular, vase or bowl shapes like in sponges, jellyfish, sea
urchins etc.
• Biradial symmetry occurs where portions of the body are
specialized and only two planes of sectioning can divide the
animal into perfectly similar halves.
• Quadriradial symmetry is observed in jelly fishes
• Echinoderms display Pentaradial symmetry
• Radially symmetric animal has not front or back end
• When gut is present, this axis passed through mouth-bearing
surface to the opposite.
iii) Bilateral symmetry

• The body part of these animals

are oriented about an axis that
passes from the front to the rear
end
• A single plane of symmetry –the
mid-saggital plane passes along
the axis of the body to separate
left and right sides.
• Any longitudinal plane passing
perpendicular to the mid-saggital
plane and separating dorsal and
ventral is called frontal plane

• Bilateral symmetry is beneficial

as they have better directional
movement
• It is also strongly associated with
cephalization, differentiation of a
head
3) Body cavities and Germ layers

• Animals differ in the presence and number of body cavities.

• This is based on how the formation of the germ layers of the organism proceeds.
• The development of an embryo in all metazoans, proceeds through different stages
a) Blastulation
b) Gastrulation
c) Formation of mesoderm

a) Blastulation

• The zygote forms a cluster of cells called a blastula.

• In most animals, the cells are arranged in a layer around a central filled cavity called
a blastocoel.
• Formation of a blastula stage occurs in all multicellular animals.
• Sponges develop into adults from the blastula stage, due to which they lack a gut
cavity.
b) Gastrulation

• One side of the blastula bends inwards in a process called invagination.

• It results in the formation of an internal cavity, which is called the gastrocoel or the gut.
• The opening to this cavity is the blastopore, which further proceed to form either the mouth or
the anus.
• Gastrula has two layers
• Outer layer of cells surrounding the blastocoel, called the ectoderm and an inner layer
lining the gut called endoderm.
• Organisms that have only two germ layers are called diploblastic

Eg: Sea anemones and Jelly fishes

• The fluid filled blastocoel persists in diploblasts
• Diploblastic organisms are mostly radial.
c) Formation of Mesoderm

• The cells of the endoderm form another germ layer known as the mesoderm that lies between the
ectoderm and the endoderm.
• Organisms having three germ layers are known as triploblastic organisms.
• They are usually biradially symmetric.
4 ) Methods of Coelom formation

During the formation of mesoderm, certain

events can take place resulting in the
differentiation of organisms into three
different types

i) Acoelomate

• The mesodermal cells fill in the blastocoel

cavity leaving only one gut cavity. Such
organisms have only one cavity and
hence called acoelomates.
• The space between the epidermal lining
and the endodermal gut lining is filled
with a spongy cells called the
parenchyma.
• The parenchyma is formed from
embryonic connective tissue and is
important for assimilation and absorption
of food and disposal of wastes.
ii) Psuedocoelomate

• In these organisms, the mesodermal cells line the

outer edge of the blastocoel, leaving two body
cavities, a blastocoel and a gut cavity.
• The blastocoel is now called a psuedocoel as the
mesoderm partially surrounds it. Psuedocoelom
lack peritoneum.

iii) EuCoelomate

• The mesodermal cells fill the blastocoel and form

a band around the gut . Then by programmed cell
death, a space forms in the mesodermal band
creating a coelom.
• The coelomic cavities are bound by mesoderm
and lined with peritoneum.
• The organs are suspended in the coelom with
mesodermal mesenteries.
5) Complete gut design

i) Blind or incomplete gut

• Some diploblasts and triploblasts have an incomplete or blind gut where the entry and
exit of food takes place through the same opening.
Example : Flatworms.
ii) Complete gut
• Most of the animals possess a complete gut which allows for a one way flow of food from
mouth to anus.
• The complete gut is formed by the formation of a gut tube.
6) Developmental pathways from a zygote to blastula
i) Spiral cleavage
• Blastopore becomes mouth, Mosaic cleavage, body can be acoelomate, pseudocoelomate or
coelomate. Coelom formed by schizocoely if coelom is present. Animals with these features are
lophotrochozoan protostomes. Eg : Annelida and Mollusca
• Animals with range of cleavage patterns are placed under ecdysozoan protostomes. These animals
are coelomate or pseudocoelomate Eg: Insects, crabs , nematodes.
ii) Radial cleavage
• Blastopore becomes Anus, Coelom forms by enterocoely, regulative cleavage, animals called
deuterostomes.
Eg: Echinoderms, Hemichordates, Chordates
7) Segmentation or Metamerism

• Most metazoans exhibit the trait of

segmentation or metamerism.
• Segmentation is a serial repetition of similar
body segments along the longitudinal axis of
the body.
• Each segment is called a metamere or somite

• In forms such as earthworms and annelids,

the metamerism is most clearly represented,
the segmental arrangement includes both
external and internal structures of several
systems.

• Repetition of muscles, blood vessels, nerves

and setae of locomotion.

• Segmentation permits greater body mobility

and complexity of structure and function
8) Components of Metazoan organisms

A) Non-cellular components
• Body fluids
• Extracellular structural elements
i) Body fluids
• Body fluids are subdivided into two fluid compartments, those that occupy intracellular space,
within the body’s cells and those that occupy extracellular space, outside the cells.
• Extracellular fluids are further divided into blood plasma and interstitial fluid.
• Interstitial fluid also called tissue fluid, occupies the space surrounding cells.
• Most invertebrates have open blood systems

ii) Extracellular structural elements

Supportive material of an organism

• Loose connective tissue, bone, and cuticle .
• These elements provide mechanical stability and protection.
• Act as a depot of materials for exchange between cells and interstitial fluid and serve as
medium for extracellular reactions.
B) Cellular components
i) Tissues
• A tissue is a group of similar cells specialized for performance of a common function.
• All cells in metazoan animals form tissues.
• The germ layers are differentiated into four kinds of tissues
• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscular
• Nervous

a) Epithelial tissue

• An epithelium is a sheet of cells that covers an external or internal surface. Outside the body,
epithelium forms a protective covering.
• Inside, it lines all organs of the body cavity
• Transport of molecules
• Modified into glands that produce mucous or hormones or enzymes
• Simple epithelia found In all animals
• Stratified epithelia restricted to mammals
b) Connective tissue

• Diverse group of tissues that serve various binding and supportive functions.
• Loose connective tissue
• Dense connective tissue
• Specialized connective tissue such as Blood , Lymph , adipose, cartilage and bone.

c) Muscular tissue

• Most abundant tissue in the body of most animals

• Originates from mesoderm and specialized for contraction

d) Nerve tissue

• Nerve tissue is specialized for reception of stimuli and conduction of impulses.

Summary

1) Animals are classified into groups based on their similarities and dissimilarities.
2) Linnaeus proposed the hierarchical form of classification and the binomial
nomenclature for grouping and unique identification of the organisms
3) Whitakker proposed the five kingdom classification to include the organisms that
cannot be included in either plantae or Animalia due to their unique characteristics
4) The classification of animals has been done based on their body plans, due to
symmetry, developmental stages, presence or absence of coelom.