UNIT-1

Minerals
 Minerals
Minerals are the building blocks of
rocks.
*Minerals are found in the earth or are
naturally occurring substances. They are
found in dirt, rocks, and water. They are
not made by man.

*Minerals are chemical substances. Some

minerals like gold or silver are made of
only one element. Other minerals, like
quartz and calcite, are combinations of
two or more elements.
 Minerals
*Minerals always have the same chemical
makeup. For example, quartz will always
consist of one part silicon (an element) two
parts oxygen (another element).

*Minerals are usually solid crystals. They

have a number of flat surfaces in an orderly
arrangement. For example, a crystal of
quartz is always hexagonal because of the
way the atoms of silicon and oxygen join
together.
Mineral group
S.No. Mineral groups
1. Oxides
2. Silicates
3. Carbonates
4. Sulfides
5. Sulfates
6. chlorites
Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Hardness
This is an indirect measure of the bond strength
in the mineral. It is exhibited in the form of
resistance to abrasion on a relatively smooth,
fresh surface. Friedrich Mohs
developed a relative harness scale for minerals
we still use today.
Mohs hardness scale
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Orthoclase
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
 2. Cleavage
Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to split repeatedly along
a given planar direction, producing
smooth surfaces. These planar fractures are an expression
of the orderly alignment of atoms
along planes within the mineral structure. Between these
planes the bonds are weaker than in
other directions.
The cleavages can be described as excellent, good, or poor,
depending upon the quality of the
surface produced. More than one direction of cleavage
may be characteristic of a mineral, and it
becomes important to note the number of cleavages
(directions), and the angles between the
planar fractures.
 3. Fracture
In the field of mineralogy, fracture is the shape
and texture of the surface formed when a
mineral is fractured.
Common type of fractures are:-
i) Even.-when the broken surface is smooth
and flat.
ii) Uneven fracture is a rough surface or one
with random irregularities. It occurs in a wide
range of minerals including arsenopyrite,
pyrite and magnetite.
iii) Earthy fracture is reminiscent of freshly
broken soil. It is frequently seen in relatively
soft, loosely bound minerals, such as limonite,
kaolinite and aluminite.
 4. Color
As a diagnostic property, the color of a mineral
must be used with care, because small amounts
of impurities within the mineral structure have a
marked effect upon the color. The color in part
therefore, gives us a clue to the composition of
the mineral. It is determined in part by the
elements in the mineral and the quantum state
of the electron cloud about the atoms, hence the
type of bonds which exist. The type of incident
light also plays a
part in the color the mineral appears to be. In
the lab it may look somewhat different from the
color you would perceive if you looked at the
specimen in direct sunlight.
 Color or colour
Color or colour (see spelling
differences) is the visual perceptual
property corresponding in humans to
the categories called red, blue, yellow,
green and others. Color derives from
the spectrum of light (distribution of
light power versus wavelength)
interacting in the eye with the spectral
sensitivities of the light receptors. Color
categories and physical specifications of
color are also associated with objects,
materials, light sources, etc
Chemical Properties of Minerals

Minerals may be classified according

to chemical composition. They are
here categorized by anion group.
The list below is in approximate
order of their abundance in the
Earth's crust.
 1. Silicate Class

The largest group of minerals by far are

the silicates (most rocks are >95%
silicates), which are composed largely
of silicon and oxygen, with the
addition of ions such as aluminum,
magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some
important rock-forming silicates
include the feldspars, quartz, olivine's,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and
micas.
 2. Carbonate Class

The carbonate minerals consist of those

minerals containing the anion (CO3)2- and
include calcite and aragonite (both calcium
carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium
carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate).
Carbonates are commonly deposited in
marine settings when the shells of dead
planktonic life settle and accumulate on
the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in
evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt
Lake).
 3. Sulfate Class
Sulfates all contain the sulfate anion,
SO42. Sulfates commonly form in
evaporitic settings where highly saline
waters slowly evaporate, allowing the
formation of both sulfates and halides
at the water-sediment interface.
Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal
vein systems as gangue minerals along
with sulfide ore minerals.
 4. Oxide Class
Oxides are extremely important in
mining as they form many of the ores
from which valuable metals can be
extracted. They also carry the best
record of changes in the Earth's
magnetic field. They commonly occur
as precipitates close to the Earth's
surface, oxidation products of other
minerals in the near surface
weathering zone, and as accessory
minerals in igneous rocks of the crust.
 5.Phosphate Class
The phosphate mineral group
actually includes any mineral with a
tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be
phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or
vanadium. By far the most common
phosphate is apatite which is an
important biological mineral found
in teeth and bones of many animals.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS
Optical properties of minerals are
important for their identification.
Optical properties are determined
with the help of polarizing
microscope.
 1.Ordinary light
Ordinary light travels in straight
lines with a transverse motion.it
vibrates in all direction at right
angles to the direction of
propagation.
 2.Polarized light
When the vibration of the wave
motion is confined to a single plane
only, the light is called polarized
light. The plane along which such
vibration take place is called plane
of polarization.
Depending upon the optical
properties
The mineral can be divided
into two groups-:
1. Isotropic minerals are minerals that
have the same properties in all
directions. This means light passes
through them in the same way, with
the same velocity, no matter what
direction the light is travelling. There
are few common isotropic minerals;
the most likely ones to see in thin
section are garnet and spinel.
 2. Anisotropic minerals

Anisotropic minerals have different

properties indifferent directions. So,
light travels through them in different
ways and with different velocities,
depending on the direction of travel
through a grain. Isotropic and
anisotropic minerals are, most of the
time, easily distinguished because
isotropic minerals do not transmit light
(are always black).
 Interference colors and
birefringence
Anisotropic minerals, unless viewed
down an optic axis, cause polarized
light to be split into two rays as it
travels through a grain. The rays may
not travel at the same velocity or
follow the exact same path. A value,
termed birefringence, describes the
difference in velocity of the two rays.
When the rays emerge from the grain,
they combine to produce interference
colors.
 Rock-Forming Minerals
minerals that are constant and intrinsic
components of rocks. They are the
most widely distributed minerals in the
earth’s crust. Silicates are the most
important rock-forming minerals and
constitute at least 75 percent of the
earth’s crust. The largest group of
silicates are feldspars. Feldspathoids,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine's, and
micas .
Physical properties of common rock
forming minerals
1. Color, specific color-: Color categories are
black, dark gray, yellow, brown, red, blue, green,
light
gray, white, and colorless. Field keys for the
identification of minerals that follow Werner’s
pragmatic approach, use color as the first
criterion. This is because the human eye has the
ability to
see an enormous variety of colors and, although
some minerals can have a wide variety of colors
(for
example, quartz varieties are colorless, milky,
Smokey gray, black, yellow, amethyst, or rose).
 2. Luster
Luster All the common rock forming minerals
have a nonmetallic luster. That is, they do not
look
like metals. Olivine and garnet look glassy
(vitreous). Quartz looks glassy or greasy and is
sometimes
splendent (sparkly). The feldspars and pyroxene
and amphibole can look glassy but they usually
look
pearly. The same is so of the micas but they can
be splendent (their mirror-like appearance can
look
metallic but not so a thin piece which will be
seen to be transparent).
 3.Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral that has
been crushed to a powder. The streak
of a mineral
is usually obtained by rubbing the
mineral on a streak plate (a piece of
unglazed white or black
porcelain). Streak is more consistent
than the specific color of a mineral.
The streak of common rock
forming silicate minerals is white to
grey.
 4.Cleavage
Cleavage Mineral cleavage is
exhibited when visible flat surfaces
result from breakage. Some
minerals that do not exhibit
cleavage are quartz, olivine, garnet,
magnetite and pyrite. When these
are broken the fracture surfaces are
irregular or curved.
 5.Hardness
Hardness A mineral’s hardness a
measure of its ability to withstand
abrasion by other substances. he
selected ten commonly
available minerals of contrasting
hardness and ranked them in
increasing hardness (H): 1 talc, 2
gypsum, 3 calcite, 4 fluorite, 5 apatite,
6 feldspar, 7 quartz, 8 topaz, 9
corundum (ruby and sapphire
when precious), and 10 diamond.
 Rocks
In geology, a rock is a naturally occurring
solid aggregate of one or more minerals or
mineraloids. For example, the common
rock, granite, is a combination of the
quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The
Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is
made of rock.
Rocks have been used by mankind through
out history. From the Stone Age rocks have
been used for tools. The minerals and
metals we find in rocks have been essential
to human civilization.
Three major groups of rocks are defined:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
The scientific study of rocks is called
petrology, which is an essential component
of geology.
 Rock Deformation
Within the Earth rocks are continually
being subjected to forces that tend to
bend them, twist them, or fracture
them. When rocks bend, twist or
fracture we say that they deform
(change shape or size). The forces that
cause deformation of rock are referred
to as stresses (Force/unit area). So, to
understand rock deformation we must
first explore these forces or stresses.
 Stress and Strain
Stress is a force applied over an area. One type
of stress that we are all used to is a uniform
stress, called pressure. A uniform stress is a
stress wherein the forces act equally from all
directions. In the Earth the pressure due to the
weight of overlying rocks is a uniform stress,
and is sometimes referred to as confining
stress.
If stress is not equal from all directions then
we say that the stress is a differential stress.
When rocks deform they are said to strain. A
strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a
material.
Texture and Structure of Rocks
The nature of the makeup of rocks
from minerals and mineral aggregates.
Texture is determined by the
dimensions, shape, and
interrelationships of the minerals;
structure depends on the general
features and spatial arrangement of
the larger components of the rock
(mineral aggregates).
Texture of igneous rocks.
Texture means the size, shape and
arrangement of minerals grain in a
rock. The grain size of an igneous
rock depend on the rate of cooling
of magma.in general, slower is the
rate of cooling, the coarser is the
grain of rock.
The study of Texture two points are
considered.
1.Degree of crystallization:-On the basis of
degree of crystallization, texture of igneous
rock can be divided into the following.
i) Holocrystalline texture- when a rock is
made up entirely of crystals.
ii) Holohyaline texture- When a rock is
composed entirely of glassy material.
2. Size of grain:-The size of grain in an
igneous rock varies considerably. The slow
cooling gives crystals time to grow to size
greater than 5 mm.in rapid cooling, the
mineral grains crystallize quickly as a mass of
tiny crystals which are generally less than one
millimeter in size.
 Dip and strike of bed
Dip:-the angle of inclination of a rock
bed with the horizontal plane is called
the “dip”.it is measured in plane
perpendicular to the strike.in addition
to the amount of dip, its direction must
also be stated. The dip angle is
measured with a compass.
 Strike
The trend of a rock bed on the ground
surface is called the strike. The strike
may be defined as the direction of a
line formed by the intersection of a
bedding plane and a horizontal plane.
The strike is always at right angle to
the true dip direction. Thus the strike is
a horizontal line on a surface of rock
beds.
 Folds
A geological fold occurs when one or a
stack of originally flat and planar
surfaces, such as sedimentary strata,
are bent or curved as a result of
permanent deformation. Folds may be
defined as a curved or zig-zag structure
show by rock beds. In other words
wave undulation in the rock beds are
called folds. They consists arches and
troughs in alternate manner.
 Classification of folds
(i) Symmetrical fold: When the axial
plane is vertical and bisects the fold, the
fold is said to be a symmetrical or upright
fold. They may be of anticlinal as well as
synclinal nature; and accordingly both the
limbs have the same amount of dip either
away from each other or towards each
other as the case may be.
A symmetrical fold is one in which the axial
plane is vertical.
 (ii) Asymmetrical fold:
If the axial plane has dip, the fold is
described as 'inclined or asymmetric'
fold. In this case both the limbs dip
at different angles and the axial
plane cannot divide the fold into
two symmetrical halves.
An asymmetrical fold is one in which
the axial plane is inclined.
(iii) Overturned folds
It is asymmetrical fold whose one
limb is turned past the vertical. In
this case the axial plane is inclined
and both the limbs dip in the same
direction. In the overturned fold the
lower limb is turned upside down.
(iv) Recumbent fold
In recumbent fold the folding is so
intense that both the limbs become
almost horizontal.in this case the axial
plane also becomes nearly horizontal
and the lower limb gets overturned.in
recumbent folds fractures usually
develop across bends to produce over
thrust.
 (v) Isoclinal fold
A recumbent fold has an essentially
horizontal axial plane. When the
two limbs of a fold are essentially
parallel to each other and thus
approximately parallel to the axial
plane, the fold is called isoclinal.
 Fault
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or
discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which
there has been significant displacement along
the fractures as a result of earth movement.
Large faults within the Earth's crust result from
the action of plate tectonic forces, with the
largest forming the boundaries between the
plates, such as subduction zones or transform
faults. Energy release associated with rapid
movement on active faults is the cause of most
earthquakes.
(1) Classification of faults on the
basis of net slip
Net slip:-The total displacement
measured along the fault plane is
called the net slip.it is measured
between the two points which were
originally in contact.
 (a) Dip slip fault:
The faults in which the slip takes place
along the direction of the slip is called dip
slip fault .in the dip slip fault net slip is
parallel to the dip of fault.
 (b) Strike slip fault

The faults in which the slip takes place

along the direction of the strike is called
dip slip fault .in the dip slip fault net slip
is parallel to the strike fault.
 (c) Oblique strike fault
A fault which has a component of dip-
slip and a component of strike-slip is
termed an 'oblique-slip fault'. Nearly
all faults will have some component of
both dip-slip and strike-slip, so defining
a fault as oblique requires both dip and
strike components to be measurable
and significant .
2) Classification of faults on the
basis of apparent movement of
blocks:
a) Normal fault:-
Normal fault is one in which the hanging wall
falls down relative to the foot wall due to
tensional stress it is also called gravity
fault/apparent normal fault. Normal faults with
very shallow dipping fault planes (<10 degrees)
are called "detachment" faults.
 (b) Reverse fault
Reverse fault is one in which the hanging
wall moves up relative to the foot wall
due to compression. If the hanging wall is
pushed up and then over the foot wall at
a low angle it is called a thrust fault.
Reverse faults with very shallow dipping
fault planes (<10 degrees) are called
"thrust" faults.
3) Classification of faults on the
basis of dip angle
a) High angle fault:-A high angle
fault is one that dips at angle
greater than 45°.
b) Low angle fault:-A low angle fault
is one that dips at angle smaller than
45°.
 Joints
In geology the term joint refers to a
fracture in rock where the displacement
associated with the opening of the fracture
is greater than the displacement due to
lateral movement in the plane of the
fracture (up, down or sideways) of one side
relative to the other. Typically, there is little
to no lateral movement across joints. Joints
occur in almost every type of rocks.
Classification of joints
(i) Tension joints:- Tension joints are those
which are formed as a result of tensional
forces. These joints are relatively open
and have rough and irregular surfaces.
Tensile stress forms joints in rocks. A joint
is a fracture that forms within a rock,
whose movement to open the fracture is
greater than the lateral movement that
takes place.
 Shear joints
Shear joint are those which are formed
due to compressional force involved in
the folding and faulting of rocks. These
joints are rather clean cut and tightly
closed. Shear joints occur in two sets
which intersect at a high angle to form
a conjugate joint system.
2.Depending on their attitude
and geometry
(i) Strike joint:-The joint which
run parallel to the strike of
country rocks are called the
strike joint.
 (ii)Dip joints
Dip joints which run parallel
to the direction of dip of the
country rocks are called the
dip joints.
(iii) Oblique joints
The joint which run oblique to
the direction of the dip and
strike direction of the country
rocks are called oblique joint.
 Unconformity
An unconformity is a buried erosional or non-
depositional surface separating two rock masses
or strata of different ages, indicating that
sediment deposition was not continuous. In
general, the older layer was exposed to erosion
for an interval of time before deposition of the
younger, but the term is used to describe any
break in the sedimentary geologic record. Major
breaks in sedimentation are called unconformity.
Classification of unconformities
1. Disconformity:-A disconformity is an
unconformity between parallel layers of
sedimentary rocks which represents a period
of erosion or non-deposition. Disconformities
are marked by features of subaerial erosion. A
Para conformity is a type of disconformity in
which the separation is a simple bedding plane
with no obvious buried erosional surface.[4] A
blended unconformity is a type of
disconformity or nonconformity with no
distinct separation plane or contact,
sometimes consisting of soils.
 2.Nonconformity
A nonconformity exists between
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or
igneous rocks when the sedimentary rock
lies above and was deposited on the pre-
existing and eroded metamorphic or
igneous rock. Namely, if the rock below the
break is igneous or has lost its bedding by
metamorphism, the plane of juncture is a
nonconformity.
 3.Angular unconformity
An angular unconformity is an
unconformity where horizontally parallel
strata of sedimentary rock are deposited
on tilted and eroded layers, producing an
angular discordance with the overlying
horizontal layers. The whole sequence may
later be deformed and tilted. The angular
unconformities occur where the older
series of beds have been tilted, deformed
and eroded.
 Earthflow
An earthflow (earth flow) is a downslope
viscous flow of fine-grained materials that
have been saturated with water, and
moves under the pull of gravity. They are
an intermediate type of mass wasting that
is between downhill creep and mudflow.
The types of materials that are susceptible
to earthflows are clay, fine sand and silt.
 Cause Of Joints (Rocks)
With regard to the manner of their
production, joints may be classified
into two series: (1) those which are
due to tension, the rock usually
parting in planes normal to the
directions of tension; (2) those
which are due to compression, the
cracks forming in the shearing-
planes.
 (1) Tension Joints

In igneous rocks joints are caused by the

cooling and consequent contraction of
the highly heated mass. This shrinkage
sets up tensile stresses in the mass to
which the rock yields by cracking and
parting, the shape of the blocks being
largely controlled by the coarseness or
fineness of the mass.
 (2) Compression Joints
Compression Joints are caused when
the rocks yield along the shearing-
planes. In simply folded strata are
produced two sets of strike joints
which are inclined toward each
other, but whether dip joints will be
made by complex folding is not
certain.
 Rock classification
Rocks are generally classified according to
several characteristics such as mineral and
chemical composition, the texture of the
constituent particles, and permeability. The
criteria used to distinguish between
different types of rocks depends, however,
on the processes that formed them. These
indicators separate rocks into three types:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
They are further classified according to
particle size. The transformation of one
rock type to another is described by the
geological model called the rock cycle.
 1.Igneous rocks
Igneous rock (derived from the Latin
word igneus meaning of fire) forms
through the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.
Igneous rock may form with or
without crystallization. Typical
igneous rocks are granite and basalt.
 2.Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are types of rock
that are formed by the deposition of
material at the Earth's surface and
within bodies of water. Sedimentation
is the collective name for processes
that cause mineral and/or organic
particles (detritus) to settle and
accumulate or for minerals to
precipitate from a solution. Particles
that form a sedimentary rock by
accumulating are called sediment.
 Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks arise from the
transformation of existing rock
types, in a process called
metamorphism, which means
"change in form". The original rock
is subjected to heat and pressure,
(temperatures greater than 150 to
200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars)
 UNIT-3

EARTHQUAKE
 Earthquakes
An earthquake is the sudden
vibration of the earths surface by
rapid release of energy. This energy
is released when two parts of rock
masses move suddenly in relation to
each other along a fault.
 Effect of earthquake
1. Building are damaged and people
get frightened.
2. Roads are fissured, railway lines are
twisted and bridge are destroyed.
3.In cities, ground waves disrupt
underground services and start fires.
4. Permanent tilted of the land mass
may occur in certain areas landslides
may occur in hilly regions.
 Causes of earthquakes
The surface of the Earth is in continuous slow
motion. This is plate tectonics--the motion of
immense rigid plates at the surface of the
Earth in response to flow of rock within the
Earth. The plates cover the entire surface of
the globe. earthquakes are caused by faulting,
a sudden lateral or vertical movement of rock
along a rupture (break) surface.
a geologist in Japan studying a 60-mile long
fault whose two sides shifted about 15 feet in
the great Japanese earthquake of 1871, who
first suggested that earthquakes were caused
by faults.
 Classification of earthquakes
Classification-1. Depending upon their
mode of origin:-
(i) Earthquake due to surface causes:-
Earthquake, shaking of the earth's surface
caused by rapid movement of the earth's rocky
outer layer. Earthquakes occur when energy
stored within the earth, usually in the form of
strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy
is transmitted to the surface of the earth by
earthquake waves. The study of earthquakes
and the waves they create is called seismology
.earthquake may be generated by landslip
and collapse of the roof.
 (ii) Earthquake due to volcanic
causes
Earthquakes related to volcanic activity
may produce hazards which include ground
cracks, ground deformation, and damage to
manmade structures. There are two
general categories of earthquakes that can
occur at a volcano: volcano-tectonic
earthquakes and long period earthquakes.
The second category of volcanic
earthquakes are long period earthquakes
which are produced by the injection of
magma into surrounding rock.
(iii) Earthquakes due to tectonic
causes
Tectonic earthquakes are caused by the
sudden release of energy stored within
the rocks along a fault. The released
energy is produced by the strain on the
rocks due to movement within the
earth, called tectonic deformation. The
effect is like the sudden breaking and
snapping back of a stretched elastic
band.
(iv) Collapse Earthquakes
Collapse earth quakes are
comparatively small earthquakes and
they take place around underground
mines.
These earthquakes are also referred to
as the mine bursts. The collapse
earthquakes are caused by the
pressure induced within the rocks.
(2) On the basis of the depth of
focus
(i) Shallow focus earthquakes:-
Earthquakes having depth of focus
up to 55 km.
(ii) Intermediate focus earthquakes:-
Earthquakes having depth focus
between 55 to 300 km.
(iii) Deep focus earthquakes:-
Earthquakes having depth of focus
between 300 to 650 km.
 EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM
In India epicentres of earthquakes are
concentrated along the Himalayan
mountains, from Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh. This region extends
southwards into the Nicobar islands.
Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra are also
very prone to earth-quakes. All other
regions in India have smaller and fewer
earthquakes. From seismicity viewpoint
India has been divided into five seismic
zones.
 THE GREAT INDIAN
EARTHQUAKES
Within the last two hundred years, India
has experienced five great
earthquakes, each with Richter magnitude
exceeding 8. The regions where these
occurred are as follows:
1819 Kutch, Gujarat
1897 Assam
1905 Kangra, Himachal Pradesh
1934 Bihar-Nepal
1950 Assam-Tibet
The Assam Earthquake of 1897
This earthquake had its epicentre near
Shillong. It is supposed be one of the
largest earthquakes in the world, and has been
assigned magnitude 8.7. The
earth heaved in the most frightful manner,
causing massive landslides and
widespread floods. At some places land was
displaced on the surface up to 12
meters. Along the Chedrang river several water
falls and lakes developed. More
than 1500 people lost their lives in this thinly
populated area.
The Kangra Earthquake of 1905
This earthquake had twin epicenters
- in the Kangra-Kulu and the
Mussoorie-Dehradun valleys. It
caused several large landslides, rock
falls and
large scale changes in the flow of
water in springs, streams and canals.
More than
19,000 people perished.
The Bihar-Nepal Earthquake of
1934
This earthquake was accompanied by
spectacular effects of slumping,
subsidence of ground, fissures in alluvium
and sand, and water fountains. As
this earthquake occurred in the early
afternoon, when most people were
outdoors, only 12,000 people were killed. If
this earthquake had occurred at
night, more people were would have been
trapped in house collapses.
 EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
Most human lives in earthquakes
are lost due to collapse of houses.
Styles of
making houses depend on local
climate, construction material
available and on
local traditions.
EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON GROUND
Violent shaking during an earthquake can
cause large fissures and can also
rupture the ground. Shaking is amplified in
soft sediments, which may cause
liquefaction of soil. Sometimes fountains of
sand and water are also witnessed.
Landslides may sometimes artificially dam
rivers to form lakes. When such
dams fail, flash floods cause further havoc
downstream.
MEASURES OF EARTHQUAKE
There are two scales for measuring
earthquake severity - magnitude and
intensity.
Magnitude
Magnitude gives an estimate of the total
energy release in an earthquake. It
is related to the maximum amplitude
recorded on a seismograph. It is expressed
by a specific number for an earthquake and
is called Richter Magnitude. The
Uttarkashi earthquake of October 20, 1991,
had Richter magnitude 6.6.
 Intensity
Intensity classifies the degree of
shaking on a descriptive scale. It is
gauged
from inspection of damage and other
effect of an earthquake at a particular
place.
It is usually maximum close to the
epicentre and diminishes away from it.
 PREVETION MEASURES
MEASURES
1.STATE
LEVEL
2.PERSONAL
LEVEL
 MEASURES
PERSONAL
LEVEL

1.BEFORE… …2.DURING… …3.AFTER

THE
EARTHQUAKE
SAFETY MEASURES (BEFORE)
Check for hazards in the home.
*Fasten shelves securely to walls.
*Place large or heavy objects on lower shelves.
*Store breakable items such as bottled foods,
glass, and china in
low, closed cabinets with latches.
Hang heavy items such as pictures and mirrors
away from beds,
couches, and anywhere people sit.
Brace overhead light fixtures.
Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gas
connections. These
are potential fire risks.
Identify safe places in each room.
*Under sturdy furniture such as a heavy desk or table.
*Against an inside wall.
*Away from where glass could shatter—around
windows, mirrors,
*pictures, or where book-cases or other heavy furniture
could fall
over.
Locate safe places outdoors.
*In the open, away from buildings, trees, telephone and
electrical
*lines, overpasses, or elevated expressways.
SAFETY MEASURES (DURING)
In case family members are separated from
one another during an
earthquake (a real possibility during the day
when adults are at
work and children are at school), develop a
plan for reuniting after
the disaster.
Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve
as the “family
contact.” After a disaster, it’s often easier to
call long distance.
Make sure everyone in the family knows the
name, address and
phone number of the contact person.
If indoors:
Take cover under a piece of heavy furniture or
against an inside
wall and hold on.
Stay inside.
The most dangerous thing to do during the shaking
of an earthquake
is to try to leave the building because objects can
fall on
you.
If outdoors:
Move into the open, away from buildings, street
lights, and utility
wires.
Once in the open, stay there until the shaking
stops.
SAFETY MEASURES (AFTER)
Inspection Utilities in a
Damaged Home
Check for gas leaks — If you smell
gas or hear a blowing or hissing
noise, open a window and quickly leave
the building. Turn off the
gas at the outside main valve if you can
and call the gas company
from a neighbor’s home. If you turn off
the gas for any reason, it
must be turned back on by a professional.
Look for electrical system
damage — If you see sparks or
broken
or frayed wires, or if you smell hot
insulation, turn off the electricity
at the main fuse box or circuit
breaker. If you have to step in water
to get to the fuse box or circuit
breaker, call an electrician first for
advice.
Earthquakes of seismic zones in
India.
Earthquake is a major natural disaster which
caused a lot of destruction in many areas of
the world. It damaged about 6,440 km roads. It
damaged
50-70 % of services like power, water and
sanitation etc. Approximately 400,153 houses,
6,298 schools and
796 health facilities were damaged and
destroyed. In the collapses of school buildings,
about 19,000 children died. Many highways
and important
roads were blocked and closed due to damage
by earthquake, landslides and rockslides. In
Japan, the building
code and seismic design is well implemented
in almost all building structures.
Description of 2005 Pakistan
Earthquake
In This earthquake, the heavily
affected areas were Muzaffarabad,
Neelum, Bagh, Poonch, Shangla,
Abbottabad, Manshehra, Batagram,
Balakot, Allai, Beshram and Kohistan.
The total estimated cost of damage
was around 5.2 billion US dollars
including immediate relief, death and
injury compensation, emergency
medical care, reconstruction and
restoration of livelihoods.
Description of the earthquake
affected area
This research was carried out in earthquake
affected areas in Azad Jammu & Kashmir
(AJK) and the Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa. The state of Azad Jammu &
Kashmir (AJK) is the territory of the former
state of Jammu and
Kashmir, which was liberated by Pakistan
and was taken over in October 1947.
Kashmir is a disputed territory
between Pakistan and India.
 Damage to building and
infrastructure
In the 2005 Pakistan Earthquake in AJK and
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, approximately 400,153
residential
building were destroyed and damaged. It is
also estimated that 50-70% important official
buildings were
destroyed and damaged including
administration, police, military buildings etc.
Due to ground shaking, most
damage to building structures occurred.
Because of ground failure due to land sliding,
rock sliding and
subsidence, a large number of building
structures located on or near the slopes were
destroyed and damaged.
Building Construction in earthquake
affected area
In Pakistan (which is a development country)
most of the building structures are made up of
unreinforced
masonry like concrete blocks, which are not
good at resisting to earthquakes. Foundations
were contracted
mostly of stones or bricks bearing on native
soils around 3-4 feet below ground and around
18-24 inches wide.
A few steel structure found in most of the wall
construction is in lintels (window or door
headers). In most
cases, it was found that no good ties existed
between the walls and the floors and roofs.
The causes of more destruction
In 2005, the destruction of building structures by
earthquake was seen a lot due to some reason and
causes.
These main causes of the more earthquake
destruction are as follows.
1. Type of building construction (Brick, stone
masonry, mud mortar, RCC frame, wooden frame
etc.).
2. Non-engineered construction.
3. Low Quality of construction.
4. No use of existing design codes.
5. Absence of art codes and building codes.
6. Use of sand taken from river-side or streams etc.
7. Use of mud taken from mountain slopes and
farms.
8. No well trained masons.
9. Some building constructed on mountain slope
without proper balance.
Seismic Design & earthquake
resistant construction
The basis of seismic design is on the
application of construction techniques,
methods and criteria used for the
design and construction of building
structures exposed to earthquakes. In
accordance to building codes, building
structures are designed in such a way to
prevent collapse and to with stand the
earthquakes likely to occur at
the location of construction. Seismic design
provides the building with suitable
stiffness, strength,
configuration and ductility.